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LESSONS 


COMMEECIAL  FRUIT  GROWING 

/ 
A  TEXT-BOOK  FOR  BEGIJ^NER^;    , 


eM  goff 

Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 
(Author  of  "Principles  of  Plaut  Culture.") 


Madtson,  Wis. 

PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  CO-OPERATIVE  ASSOCIATION 

VM-Z. 


ZJ     IrzJ^^  ^    ^ 


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Copyright  1902 

BY 

E.  S.  GOFF. 


STATE  JOURNAL  PRINTING  COMPANY, 

Printers  and  Stekeotypers, 
madison,  wis. 


PREFACE 


This  book,  like  its  predecessor,  ''  Principles  of  Plant  Cul- 
ture," has  grown  up  in  the  class  room.  As  in  that  work, 
the  text  is  briefly  stated,  with  the  expectation  that  the  in- 
structor will  amplify  it  by  questions  and  by  additional  facts 
from  his  experience,  observation  or  reading.  This  book 
is  intended  as  a  supplement  to  "  Principles  of  Plant  Cul- 
ture," hence  information  given  in  that  book  is  not  repeated 
here,  as  a  rule. 

While  good  horticultural  books  are  much  more  numer- 
ous than  they  were  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  the  author 
has  been  able  to  find  no  single  book  that  presents  concisely 
the  information  he  desires  to  give  his  students  in  fruit 
growing.  This  is  his  apology  for  offering  another  book. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  topical  arrangement  of  the  subject 
matter,  the  cross-references,  the  summaries  following  the 
chapters  or  sections,  and  the  suggestions  for  laboratory 
work  will  commend  this  book  to  other  instructors. 

A  list  of  books  is  appended  at  the  end  (page  212),  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  desire  to  pursue  the  subjects  further. 

Madison,  Wis.,  Feb.  1,  1902.  E.  S.  GOFF. 


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


Figures  21,  23,  26,  30,  31,  32,  34,  35,  36,  37,  38  and  39 
are  from  "  The  Pruning  Book,"  by  Prof.  L.  H.  Bailey,  and 
are  used  by  permission  of  Prof.  Bailey,  and  his  publishers, 
The  Macmillan  Company,  of  New  York.  Some  of  these 
were  redrawn  and  slightly  modified. 

Figures  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  16,  22,  24,  27,  40,  41,  45, 
47  and  48  are  from  "Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits,"  by  Prof. 
William  Saunders,  F.  R.  S.  C,  and  were  purchased  from 
the  publishers  of  that  book,  the  J.  B.  Lippineott  Company, 
of  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Figures  19,  25,  33,  42  and  43  were  purchased  from  the 
Wells,  Higman  Company,  of  Saint  Joseph,  Mich. 

Figure  15  is  used  by  permission  of  Dr.  L.  0.  Howard,  of 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Figure  18  is  from  a  plate  loaned  by  the  Virginia  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  through  Prof.  Wm.  B.  Al- 
wood. 

The  books  mentioned  on  page  212,  and  a  few  others,  have 
been  freely  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  this  work,  and 
the  assistance  thus  gained  is  gratefully  acknowledged. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Pagesv 

Chapter    I. —  (xeneral  Considerations 1-19 

Chapter  XL—  Tree-fruit  or  Orchard  Culture 20-135 

Section  1  —  General  Statements 20-38 

Section  2  —  The  Pome  Fruits 39-75 

A  —  The  Apple 40-67 

B  — The  Pear 67-73 

C  —  The  Quince 73-75 

Section  3  —  The  Stone  or  Drupe  Fruits 75-101 

A  — The  Plum 77-87 

B  — The  Cherry 87-90 

C  —  The  Peach 90-97 

D  —  The  Apricot 97-98 

Section  4— The  Citrous  Fruits 101-109 

A  —  The  Orange 102-105 

B  —  The  Lemon 106 

C  —  The  Lime 107 

D  — The  Pomelo 107 

Section  5  —  The  Nuts 109-125 

A  — The  Pecan 110-114 

B  — The  Chestnut 114-116 

C  — The  Walnut    117-119 

D  — The  Almond 119-121 

E  —  The  Hazel 121-123 

Chapter  III.— The  Grape 126-147 

Chapter  IV.—  The  Small  Fruits 148-184 

Section  1  —  The  Bramble  Fruits 150-159 

Section  2  —  The  Groselles 159-165 

A  — The  Currants 160-164 

B  —  The  Gooseberries 164-165 


VI  TABLE    OF   CONTENTS 

Paoes 

Section  3  —  The  Strawberry 165-173 

Section  4  —  The  Cranberry 175-180 

Section  5  — The  Miscellaneous  Small  Fruits 180-182 

Chapter  V.—  The  Storage  and  Preservation  of  Fruit 185-203 

Section  1  —  The  Storage  of  Fruit 185-188 

Section  2  —  The  Preservation  of  Fruits 188-201 

Chapter  VI. —  Business  Management  of  the  Fruit  Planta- 
tion   204-212 

Section  1  —  The  Marketing  of  Fruit 205-207 

Section  2  —  The   Employment  and  Management   of 

Labor 208-209 

Section  3  —  The  Procuring  of  Supplies 209-210 


LESSONS  IN  COMMERCIAL  FRUIT  GROWING 


CHAPTER   I 

GENERAL   CONSIDERATIONS 

1.  Definitions.  The  word  fruity  as  used  in  American 
horticulture,  may  be  defined  as  the  edible  part  of  a  peren- 
nial plant  that  is  closely  connected  in  its  development  with 
the  flower.  This  definition  includes  the  nuts,  which  for 
convenience,  are  now  classed  with  fruits  in  matters  relat- 
ing to  culture.  Pomology  ox  fruit  growing  is  the  art  or 
science  of  raising  fruit.  Commercial  fruit  growing  is  the 
raising  of  fruit  primarily  as  a  means  of  earning  a  liveli- 
hood. It  includes  the  raising,  the  handling  and  the  mar- 
keting of  fruits,  especially  in  large  quantities. 

2.  Present  condition  of  fruit  growing:.  Fruit  growing 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada  is  now  passing  through 
a  transition  period,  especially  as  regards  the  tree  fruits. 
The  old-time  farm  orchard  is  slowly  disappearing.  The 
production  of  fruit,  however,  is  rapidly  increasing,  but  the 
increase  is  due  mainly  to  the  establishment  of  large  com- 
mercial orchards.  Fruit  growing,  in  other  words,  is  fol- 
lowing in  the  line  of  other  industries  and  is  being  more 
and  more  conducted  on  a  large  scale,  and  often  with  com- 
bined capital  and  according  to  strict  business  methods.  As 
the  result,  fruit  is  being  produced  more  cheaply,  and  of 
better  quality  than  formerly. 

3.  The  education  required.  Commercial  fruit  grow- 
ing requires  education  along  two  distinct  lines.     1st.  The 


2  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

person  who  grows  the  fruit  needs  a  knowledge  of  plant  life 
and  plant  development,  especially  in  relation  to  the  par- 
ticular plants  he  desires  to  grow;  and  2d,  the  person  who 
attends  to  the  business  matters  connected  with  the  grow- 
ing and  disposition  of  the  fruit  needs  a  knowledge  of  busi- 
ness methods  in  general,  and  especially  as  related  to  the 
handling  and  mai'keting  of  fruit.  A  knowledge  of  vege- 
table physiology,  of  chemistry  and  physics  as  applied  to 
agriculture,  and  of  controlling  the  parasitic  enemies  of  fruit 
plants  forms  the  basis  for  the  first  kind  of  education;  a 
knowledge  of  commercial  methods,  including  bookkeeping, 
and  of  packing  and  shipping  fruit  forms  the  basis  for  the 
second. 

Some  knowledge  of  the  manufacture  of  fruits  into  sec- 
ondary products  is  also  important. 

Success  in  commercial  fruit  growing  will  depend  much 
upon  the  extent  to  which  these  two  kinds  of  education  are 
combined.  The  same  individual  need  not  possess  educa- 
tion in  both  lines;  indeed  both  are  often  in  demand  at  the 
same  time  and  in  different  places.  If  an  extensive  fruit 
business  is  undertaken,  it  will  be  better  to  have  one  person 
make  a  specialty  of  each,  of  these  departments. 

The  foundation  for  the  first  kind  of  knowledge  is  best 
attained  in  an  agricultural  college;  that  for  the  second  in 
a  business  college.  Both  should  be  supplemented  by 
practical  work  for  a  time  in  a  successful  commercial  fruit 
business. 

4.  The  outlook  for  commercial  fruit  §:rowin§:.  Both  the 
production  and  the  consumption  of  fruit  are  increasing  in 
most  civilized  countries.  The  methods  of  production,  stor- 
age, distribution,  manufacture  and  preserving  of  fruits  tend 
to  improve  and  to  become  cheaper.  The  number  of  persons 


,    General  Considerations.  3 

who  are  able  to  appreciate  and  to  pay  for  strictly  choice 
fruit  is  increasing.  The  opportunities  for  business  success 
in  fruit  growing  are  perhaps  as  numerous  and  as  favorable 
as  in  any  other  productive  industry.  There  is  plenty  of 
^'room  at  the  top."  It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  one  branch 
of  productive  industry  will  prove  permanently  more  re- 
munerative than  another.  Aside  from  personal  aptitudes 
and  tastes,  which  should  never  be  ignored,  an  occupation 
is  desirable  in  proportion  as  it  promotes  the  broadest  de- 
velopment of  those  who  follow  it.  Viewed  from  this  stand- 
point, few  occupations  are  more  desirable  than  commercial 
fruit  growing. 

5.  The  kinds  of  fruit  grown  will  depend  somewhat  upon' 
whether  a  location  is  to  be  selected,  or  ground  already 
•owned  is  to  be  used.  In  the  first  case  the  market  and  the 
personal  tastes  of  the  grower  should  be  considered,  and  the' 
location  selected  that  is  best  adapted  to  the  chosen  fruit  or 
fruits.  In  the  second  case  the  adaptability  of  the  different 
fruits  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  tract  to  be  used, 
should  first  be  considered.  As  a  rule  the  fruit  will  pay 
best  that  is  best  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate.  It  is 
generally  wiser  to  grow  two  or  more  fruits  than  to  depend 
upon  one,  as  the  chances  of  crop  failure  are  thereby  reduced. 

6.  The  choice  of  a  location.  This  will  necessarily  de- 
pend much  upon  the  particular  fruit  or  fruits  it  is  desired 
to  produce.  The  location  chosen,  however,  should  be  gov- 
erned by  two  principal  considerations,  viz.:  1st,  the  favor- 
ableness  of  the  soil  and  climate  to  the  production  of  the 
fruit  or  fruits  it  is  desired  to  produce,  and  2d,  the  oppor- 
tunities for  marketing  the  fruits. 

1st.  The  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  required  differ 
.greatly  with  different  fruits,  and  will  be  treated  specifically 


4:  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

in  the  proper  places,  but  certain  general  requirements  may 
be  mentioned  here. 

a.  Length  of  season.  The  warm  season  should  be  suffi- 
ciently long  to  properly  mature  the  fruit  or  fruits  it  is  de- 
sired to  grow.  The  quality  of  fruits  depends  more  or  less 
upon  their  receiving  a  given  amount  of  solar  heat  during 
the  growth  period.  Thus  the  grape  only  attains  its  high- 
est quality  when  grown  in  a  warm  climate.  Conversely, 
the  season  may  be  too  long  and  warm  for  the  highest 
quality  and  best  keeping  of  a  given  fruit,  as  is  true  of  the 
apple  in  southern  United  States. 

b.  Freedom  from  damaging  frosts.  This  depends  more 
upon  local  environment  than  upon  latitude.  Altitude,  as- 
pect and  proximity  to  bodies  of  water  should  receive  the 
most  careful  attention  in  locating  the  fruit  plantation.* 

c.  Shelter  from  prevailing  winds.  A  location  that  is 
sheltered  from  the  prevailing  winds  by  natural  barriers,  as 
elevations  of  ground  or  forests,  is  preferable  to  one  not 
thus  sheltered,  especially  for  the  tree  fruits.  In  otherwise 
favorable  locations,  damage  from  winds  may  be  in  part 
averted  by  growing  a  wind-break  on  the  side  of  the  plan- 
tation toward  the  prevailing;  winds.  '(10.)  t 

2d.  The  market  conditions.  The  market,  to  the  com- 
mercial fruit  grower,  means  the  party  or  parties  that  buy 
the  fruits,  and  has  no  necessary  relation  to  the  place  where 
the  fruits  are  consumed.  Sometimes  the  buyer  goes  to  the 
farm  and  buys  the  fruit,  even  before  it  is  mature;  at  other 
times  the  fruit  is  shipped  a  long  distance  —  perhaps  across 
the  ocean  —  before  it  finds  a  buyer.     The  transaction  may 

*  The  relation  of  these  conditions  to  aiinaging  frosts  is  considered  in  detail 
in  "  Principles  of  Plant  Culture." 

+  A  number  in  parenthesis  in  the  text  refers  to  another  paragraph  that  gives 
further  information  on  the  same  subject. 


General  Considerations.  5 

be  equally  profitable  in  both  cases.  The  market  is  a  less 
definite  and  a  less  stable  factor  than  the  conditions  of  soil 
and  climate.    A  few  principles,  however,  can  be  laid  down. 

a.  Transportation  facilities.  To  avoid  carriage  by  wagon 
and  transfer  after  shipment,  fruits  for  the  commercial 
business  are  preferably  grown  near  some  through  line  of 
transportation.  Two  such  lines  are  preferable  to  one,  as 
competition  will  thus  tend  to  lower  shipping  rates,  and 
there  will  then  be  greater  security  in  case  of  strikes  or  other 
temporary  obstructions  to  commerce.  As  a  rule,  the  larger 
the  number  of  transportation  companies  within  reach  of 
the  fruit  plantation,  the  better. 

b.  Shipping  qnalitij.  The  more  delicate  and  perishable 
the  fruit  produced,  the  more  important  is  it  that  it  should 
be  grown  near  a  large  center  of  population.  The  straw- 
berry cannot  be  shipped  long  distances  and  be  delivered  to 
the  consumer  at  its  highest  quality,  though  winter  apples 
may  be  shipped  across  the  ocean  without  deterioration. 

Locations  may  sometimes  be  found  where  special  fruits 
may  be  grown  outside  of  their  normal  climatic  belt.  Thus 
peaches  are  produced  considerably  farther  north  on  the 
east  side  of  Lake  Michigan  than  is  possible  in  the  Eastern 
States,  and  oranges  may  be  grown  in  the  thermal  belts  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  as  far  north  as  Philadelphia. 
Fruits  that  can  be  well  grown  outside  of  their  normal  belt 
are  usually  more  profitable  than  those  grown  in  it,  because 
local  competition  is  thus  restricted. 

A  market  may  sometimes  be  developed  where  it  does  not 
already  exist.  Since  fruits  do  not  usually  rank  among  the 
necessaries  of  life,  their  consumption  depends  largely  upon 
their  cheapness  and  quality.  In  order  to  develop  a  market 
for  fruit  we  must  supply  the  products  of  fine  quality  and  in 


6  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

an  attractive  form.  As  their  value  becomes  known,  the 
demand  for  them  will  increase. 

The  most  profitable  markets  for  fruits  are  not  always 
the  largest  towns  and  cities,  since  these,  drawing  their  sup- 
ply from  extensive  areas,  are  generally  better  stocked  than 
smaller  communities. 

3d.  Other  conditions.  Aside  from  soil,  climate  and  mar- 
ket, other  conditions  should  be  considered  in  locating  the 
fruit  plantation: 

a.  The  ahilitij  to  procure  the  desired  mcuiual  labor  at  a 
reasonable  cost.  This  need  not  necessarily  be  skilled  labor, 
as  few  of  the  operations  of  fruit  culture  are  difficult  to 
learn.  More  or  less  of  transient  labor  will  be  needed,  much 
of  which  may  in  some  cases  be  performed  by  women  and 
children.  A  location  near  a  thickly-settled  community  is 
almost  a  necessity  for  small-fruit  growing,  in  which  much 
extra  labor  is  needed  during  the  harvest  season. 

b.  An  available  supply  of  manure  or  fertilizers  at  prices 
that  the  market  value  of  the  crops  will  Avarrant.  Home- 
made manure  is  cheapest,  but  cannot  often  be  provided  in  , 
sufficient  quantity.  Manure  can  usually  be  most  cheaply 
purchased  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  town  or  city,  but  is 
sometimes  available  elsewhere,  as  from  railways,  slaughter- 
houses, glue  factories,  etc.  Commercial  fertilizers  may  be 
ordered  directly,  or  through  agents,  to  be  delivered  at  the 
nearest  freight  depot. 

c.  Proximity  to  fruit  establishments.  A  location  near  a 
canning  factory,  fruit  evaporator,  or  a  jelly,  jam,  cider  or 
vinegar  factory  is  desirable  as  offering  a  means  for  dispos- 
ing of  the  lower  grades  of  fruit. 

d.  Proximity  to  package  manufactories.  A  location  near 
a  factory  that  turns  out  the  kinds  of  packages  most  used 
on  the  fruit  plantation,  is  an  incidental  advantage. 


General  Considerations.  Y 

T.  The  selection  of  varieties.  Success  in  commercial 
fruit  growing  depends  much  upon  the  selection  of  the 
proper  varieties  for  growing.  These,  must  be  so  well 
adapted  to  their  environment  that  they  will  be  regularly 
productive,  and  their  fruit  must  be  of  a  character  that 
commands  a  good  price.  Most  varieties  can  be  grown  to 
perfection  only  in  certain  districts,  and  it  is  usually  diffi- 
cult to  ascertain  what  varieties  will  do  best  in  a  given  lo- 
calit3^  Much  may  be  learned  from  reading,  from  observa- 
tion and  from  the  experience  of  fruit  growers  and  fruit 
dealers,  but  the  grower  will  still  find  it  necessary  to  experi- 
ment largely  for  himself.  A  "  trial  ground  "  is  an  essen- 
tial part  of  the  commercial  fruit  plantation. 

The  successful  market  varieties  of  the  different  fruits 
vary  in  different  localities  and  at  different  periods.  It  is, 
therefore,  impracticable  to  recommend  a  list  of  varieties  in 
a  work  of  this  kind. 

8.  Commercial  and  domestic  varieties.  Varieties  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes  with  reference  to  the  trade  for 
which  they  are  grown.  Those  intended  for  sale  in  the 
open  market,  especially  if  they  must  be  shipped,  require 
different  properties  from  those  intended  for  delivery  direct 
to  the  consumer.  The  former  maybe  cd\\Q(\.  commercial 
varieties,  the  latter  domestic  varieties. 

Commercial  varieties  demand  attractive  appearance,  large 
size  and  good  carriage  and  keeping  qualities.  High  edible 
quality  is  generall}'  considered  of  secondary  importance. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  fruit  is  purchased 
by  the  consumer  primarily  for  its  jDleasing  and  refreshing 
edible  qualities,  and  that  the  more  pleasing  and  refreshing 
a  given  sample  is  found  to  be,  the  more  of  it  will  be  pur- 
chased as  a  rule.  High  edible  quality  should  be  regarded 
as  one  of  tLj  essentials  of  a  market  variety. 


8  Lessona  in  Fruit  Growing. 

Domestic  varieties  demand  special  adaptation  to  some 
particular  purpose,  as  for  dessert,  for  canning,  for  jam  or 
for  jelly,  rather  than  attractiveness  or  keeping  quality. 
Domestic  varieties  require  the  higher  skill  in  their  produc- 
tion and  marketing,  and  they  often  yield  the  larger  and 
surer  profits.  They  cannot,  however,  always  be  sold  in  as 
large  quantities  as  commercial  varieties. 

9.  Procuring:  stock  for  planting;.  Some  pomologists  are 
of  the  opinion  that  the  selection  of  cions  and  buds  for 
propagation  from  productive  individual  plants  is  essential 
to  the  best  success  in  fruit  culture.  While  this  proposition 
may  not  have  been  demonstrated,  it  is  probably  true  and 
prudence  would  dictate  its  careful  observance.  This,  how- 
ever, will  necessitate  that  the  fruit  grower  become  a  nur- 
seryman. At  any  rate  the  stock  needed  for  the  fruit  plan- 
tation can  generally  be  purchased  cheaper  and  much 
quicker  from  a  professional  nurseryman,  than  it  can  be 
grown  in  the  quantities  commonly  needed  for  planting. 
In  buying  stock,  the  locality,  the  seller  and  the  time  of 
year  are  points  to  be  considered. 

The  locality  where  stock  should  be  purchased.  The  nearer 
by  the  stock  can  be  found,  the  more  cheaply  can  it  be  de- 
livered, and  the  shorter  is  the  time  needed  for  transporta- 
tion. Stock  grown  under  conditions  most  similar  to  those 
under  which  it  is  to  be  planted  is  generally  preferable,  but 
probably  more  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  stock 
when  planted  than  upon  its  nativity.  The  best  way  is  for 
the  purchaser  to  go  to  the  nursery,  select  and  dig  the  stock, 
and  have  it  delivered  at  his  grounds  without  boxing  or 
baling. 

The  parties  from  whom  stock  should  be  imrchased.  Stock 
must  generally  be  purchased  from  one  or  more  nurserymen 


General  Considerations.  9 

or  nursery  middlemen.  Since  it  is  often  impossible  to  dis- 
tinguish varieties  of  young  stock  with  certaint}'-,  the  pur- 
chaser must  depend  much  on  the  integrity  and  care  of  the 
seller.  As  nurserymen  are  commonly  more  thoroughly 
established,  and  have  more  capital  invested  than  middle- 
men, they  are  generally  more  anxious  to  maintain  a  good 
business  reputation.  The  more  times  the  stock  changes 
hands  the  greater  is  the  liability  to  mistakes.  For  these 
reasons  it  is  usually  safer  to  deal  directly  with  the  growers 
of  the  stock,  and  when  considerable  quantities  of  stock  are 
to  be  purchased,  the  middleman's  commission  can  often  be 
saved  by  so  doing.  Traveling  nursery  agents  are  usually 
least  reliable  of  those  who  handle  nursery  stock,  and  their 
prices  are  apt  to  be  highest. 

The  time  to  purchase  stock  will  depend  upon  the  time 
the  planting  is  contemplated,  and  this  will  naturally  vary 
with  the  kind  of  fruit  and  the  climate.  It  is  generally 
best,  however,  to  order  early,  while  the  nurseryman's  as- 
sortment is  complete,  and  before  his  hurrying  season  ar- 
rives. Specific  orders  should  be  given  as  to  the  time  the 
stock  is  desired  for  planting  in  order  that  the  nurseryman 
may  know  when  to  ship  it.  In  climates  of  severe  winters 
it  is  often  wise  to  have  trees  delivered  in  autumn  for  spring 
planting,  and  to  bury  them  in  a  well  drained  place  until 
spring. 

10.  Wind-breaks.  A  wind-break  is  a  planting,  usually 
of  trees  or  tall  shrubs,  intended  to  break  the  force  of  winds. 
It  generally  consists  of  one  or  more  rows  of  rather  closely- 
planted  trees,  and  is  usually  located  to  serve  as  a  shelter 
from  the  prevailing  winds  only.  Wind-breaks  are  helpful 
to  the  fruit  plantation,  as  a  rule,  unless  it  is  already  pro- 
tected from  severe  winds  by  natural  barriers.     They  tend 


]  0  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

to  reduce  evaporation,  to  retain  snow  and  leaves  on  the 
ground  in  winter,  and  they  facilitate  work  in  the  planta- 
tion in  windy  weather.  In  orchards  they  lessen  wind-falls, 
the  breaking  and  bending  of  trees  and  damage  to  blossoms, 

A  wind-break  may  prove  injurious  by  intercepting  winds 
that  are  tempered  by  a  near  body  of  water,  thus  increasing 
the  cold,  and  sometimes  by  promoting  frost  to  the  leeward 
by  obstructing  air  currents.  These  effects  may  be  largely 
avoided  by  planting  the  wind-break  thinly  for  such  expos- 
ures, thus  permitting  some  movement  of  the  air  between 
the  trees,  A  wind-break  may  sometimes  favor  injurious 
insects  and  fungi,  and  may  cause  a  dearth  of  soil  water  in 
the  near  vicinity,  but  these  effects  may  be  largely  obviated 
by  the  use  of  parasite  preventives,  as  spraying,  by  good 
cultivation,  and  in  the  case  of  orchards,  by  planting  the 
wind-break  at  the  same  time  as  the  trees,  and  at  a  liberal 
distance  from  them. 

As  a  rule,  a  closely  planted  wind-break,  as  of  the  denser 
evergreens,  is  preferable  for  plantations  not  perceptibly 
influenced  by  a  body  of  water,  and  with  good  cold-air 
drainage.  Deciduous  trees  or  thinly-planted  evergreens 
are  often  preferable  near  a  body  of  water  or  where  the  cold- 
air  drainage  is  interrupted. 

The  Norway  spruce  is  most  extensively  planted  as  a 
wind-break  in  northern  United  States.  Nut  trees  have 
been  suggested  as  a  wind-break  for  fruit  plantations,  but 
they  would  generally  grow  too  slowly  and  too  open  at  the 
bottom,  while  the  close  planting  necessary  for  the  pur- 
poses of  a  wind-break  would  be  unfavorable  to  the  produc- 
tion of  nuts, 

11.  Designation  of  varieties.  The  names  of  varieties- 
planted  for  fruiting  should  be  preserved.     The  varieties 


General  Considerations.  11 

should  be  designated  in  the  field  by  appropriate  stakes  or 
labels,  but  as  these  are  subject  to  many  accidents  and  are 
rarely  durable,  an  additional  record  should  be  kept.  A  map 
of  the  plantation,  on  which  every  variety  is  located  and 
named,  is  very  convenient  for  reference,  but  where  it  is 
desired  to  preserve  notes  of  the  different  varieties,  a  book 
or  card  catalogue  is  also  desirable.  If  a  book  is  used,  a 
page  may  be  devoted  to  each  variety,  or  to  each  individual 
tree  or  plant  if  desired,  and  the  names  of  the  varieties  may 
be  indexed  for  reference.  The  card  catalogue  is  perhaps 
best,  especially  for  large  plantations.  In  this  method,  the 
name  or  number  of  each  variety,  tree  or  plant  of  which  it 
is  desired  to  preserve  notes,  is  written  near  the  top  of  a 
card,  and  the  cards  are  arranged  in  a  box  or  drawer  in  the 
same  order  in  which  the  names  occur  in  the  plantation. 
The  cards  indicating  the  varieties  in  one  row  may  be  in- 
closed in  a  rubber  band.  The  different  fruits  may  be  sepa- 
rated by  wider  cards  or  by  pieces  of  thin  board.  The  cards 
should  be  large  enough  for  recording  all  needed  data.  If 
a  tree  or  a  variety  is  removed  from  the  plantation,  the  card 
corresponding  to  it  is  taken  out  of  the  box;  or  if  one  is 
transplanted,  its  card  is  removed  in  like  manner.  Thus  the 
list  is  not  cumbered  with  varieties  no  longer  grown,  and 
shows  every  variety  in  the  plantation  in  its  proper  place. 
Where  many  varieties  are  grown  a  supplementary  card 
catalogue,  in  which  each  card  contains  the  name  of  one 
variety  and  designates  its  location,  and  in  which  the  names 
are  arranged  in  strict  alphabetical  order,  is  also  needed  for 
locating  varieties  of  which  the  place  has  been  forgotten. 

12.  Harmful  parasites  and  diseases.  The  fruit  grower 
must  be  watchful  for  these  during  the  growing  season,  or 
much  harm  may  result  before  the  cause  is  discovered.  The 


12  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

insects  and  diseases  that  affect  the  different  fruit  plants 
will  be  treated  separately  for  each  class,  but  largely  the 
same  apparatus  and  materials  will  be  needed  for  all.  A 
good  spraying  pump  with  an  attachment  that  secures  a 
uniform  mixture  of  the  materials,  and  that  is  capable  of 
spraying  kerosene  aud  water  together,  with  a  nozzle  that 
gives  an  adjustable  spray,  with  ready  unclogging  facilities, 
will  be  almost  indispensable,  as  will  conveniences  for  pre- 
paring the  Bordeaux  mixture.*  The  capacity  of  the  spray- 
ing apparatus  needed  will  depend  much  upon  the  size  of 
the  plantation.  For  large  plantations,  a  pump  operated 
by  horse  power  will  be  very  useful,  while  one  operated  by 
steam  may  be  needed  for  those  of  the  largest  size. 

13.  The  conditions  affecting  fruitfulness  are  but  par- 
tially understood.  In  a  climate  favorable  to  a  given  fruit, 
fruitfulness  probably  depends  more  upon  variety  than  upon 
outside  conditions.  Of  the  latter,  those  that  promote  a 
healthful  condition  of  the  plant  and  moderate  growth 
doubtless  tend  to  normal  fruitfulness.  Vigorous  growth 
is  generally  opposed  to  fruitfulness,  and  so  are  severe 
drought  and  insufficient  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  in  the 
soil.  An  excessive  crop  of  fruit  is  apt  to  be  followed  by  a 
partial  or  complete  failure  of  crop.  The  flower  buds  of  our 
fruit  plants  are  formed  the  season  previous  to  their  expan- 
sion, and  the  weather  during  or  just  preceding  the  flower- 
forming  period  most  likely  exerts  a  potent  influence  upon 
the  number  of  flowers  formed.  The  weather  during  the 
expansion  of  the  flowers  and  the  setting  of  the  fruit  is 
probably  also  potent.  But  excepting  the  effects  of  frost  at 
blooming  time,  these  influences  are,  as  yet,  little  under- 

*  For  a  discussion  of  various  iBsecticides  and  fungicides,  and  directions  for 
preparing  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  see  "Principles  of  Plant  Culture." 


General  Considerations.  13 

stood.  In  fruits  of  which  the  flower  buds  are  more  subject 
to  harm  from  cold  than  the  leaf  buds,  as  in  the  stone  fruits, 
the  flower  buds  are  often  destroyed  in  winter. 

14.  The  self-Sterility  of  varieties.  Recent  investigations 
have  shown  that  many,  perhaps  most,  varieties  of  fruit  are 
infertile  to  their  own  pollen:  i.  e.,  their  flowers  will  not  set 
fruit  unless  their  stigmas  receive  pollen  from  some  other 
variety. .  For  example,  the  Bartlett  pear  fruits  well  only 
when  its  stigmas  receive  pollen  from  some  other  kind  of 
pear  than  Bartlett.  The  limits  of  self-sterility  have  not 
been  determined,  but  until  they  are  determined  it  is  wise  to 
mingle  varieties  freely  in  the  fruit  plantation,  rather  than 
to  plant  large  blocks  of  a  single  variety.  As  a  rule,  more 
than  two  rows  of  a  given  variety  should  not  be  planted  to- 
gether. Care  should  also  be  taken  to  plant  varieties  to- 
gether, so  far  as  practicable,  that  bloom  at  the  same  time. 

15.  Fruit  packages  should  be  provided  early  to  avoid 
delays  in  harvesting.  They  may  often  be  advantageously 
secured  during  the  winter,  so  that  they  can  be  nailed  up 
and  branded  when  time  is  less  valuable  than  during  the 
growing  season.  They  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  place 
where  the  sun  cannot  shine  upon  them,  and  away  from 
rats  and  mice.  Damp  package-material  to  be  kept  some 
time  before  putting  in  shape  should  be  piled  loosely  to  pre- 
vent mildew.  As  the  package  is  influential  in  selling  the 
fruit,  neatness  in  its  appearance  is  important.  Second- 
hand packages  should  only  be  used  for  inferior  fruit.  The 
different  kinds  of  packages  are  considered  in  connection 
with  the  fruits  for  which  they  are  used. 

The  requisites  to  a  good  package  are  (a)  sufiicient 
strength,  (b)  neatness,  (c)  cheapness  and  (d)  lightness. 
"Gift"  packages,  i.  e.,  those  that  are  furnished  free  with 


14  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

the  fruit  are  usually  most  satisfactory.  A  returnable  pack- 
age  must  be  made  comparatively  heavy  and  costly  to  pro- 
vide sufficient  strength;  it  soon  becomes  soiled  from  use, 
and  often  causes  trouble  by  not  being  promptly  returned. 

The  grower's  name  and  address  should  be  put  upon  every 
package  of  good  fruit,  and  an  attractive  trade-mark  -will 
aid  in  securing  a  reputation. 

16.  When  and  how  should  fruit  he  picked?  With  a  few 
exceptions,  of  which  the  pear  is  one  (77),  fruit  reaches  its 
highest  edible  quality  when  left  attached  to  the  plant  until 
fully  ripe.  The  stage  of  ripeness  at  which  it  should  be  picked, 
however,  depends  upon  the  market.  Fruit  supplied  direct 
to  the  consumer  should  be  picked  and  delivered  when  in  best 
condition  for  the  use  intended.  If  for  dessert,  it  should  be 
picked  fully  ripe;  if  for  canning  it  may  need  to  be  picked 
a  little  hard.  The  purchaser  should  generally  be  consulted 
on  these  points. 

Fruit  that  must  be  shipped  to  market  should  be  picked 
sufficiently  hard,  and  be  so  packed  as  to  endure  the  jour- 
ney without  damage  from  bruising.  Allowance  should  be 
made  for  the  time  required  in,  and  the  manner  of  transit, 
for  the  season,  the  weather  and  the  variety.  Fruit  that  is 
to  be  but  one  hour  in  transit  may  be  picked  riper  than  that 
which  will  be  five  to  ten  hours  on  the  journey;  that  which 
is  to  be  carried  by  water  may  usually  be  picked  somewhat 
riper  than  that  which  is  to  go  by  rail  for  a  similar  time. 
Tender-fleshed  varieties  should  be  picked  less  mature  than 
firm-fleshed  ones. 

Abrasions  of  the  skin  and  bruises,  however  small,  detract 
from  the  market  value  and  keeping  quality  of  fruits,  and 
hence  should  be  carefully  avoided.  The  bloom  of  fruits 
possessing  bloom  should  be  preserved  intact.    Fruit  should 


General  Considerations.  15 

only  be  picked  while  the  skin  is  dry,  as  a  rule,  and  should 
never  be  permitted  to  become  wet  after  picking,  for  moist- 
ure on  the  skin  promotes  decay.  Nor  should  picked  fruit 
be  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  in  warm  weather.  The  more 
tender  the  fruit,  the  more  important  is  it  to  observe  these 
precautions.  As  a  rule,  the  sooner  fruit  can  be  removed 
to  the  packing  or  storing  house  after  picking,  the  better. 

17.  Grading:  and  packing:.  First  impressions  are  potent 
in  forming  judgment,  hence  fruit  exposed  for  sale  should 
be  put  up  to  present  the  finest  appearance  consistent  with 
honest  packing.  Uniformity  of  size  and  quality  in  the 
package  promotes  a  favorable  impression,  hence  fruits 
should  be  graded,  so  far  as  practicable,  and  different  grades 
should  be  separately  packed.  An  intelligent  buyer  seldom 
offers  much  more  for  an  ungraded  package  of  fruit  than  he 
regards  the  poorer  samples  worth,  hence  the  better  speci- 
mens sell  for  less  than  their  value.  If  the  quality  is  uni- 
form throughout  the  package,  an  artistic  arrangement  of 
the  specimens  on  the  exj^osed  part  is  legitimate  and  com- 
mendable. 

18.  Packinghouses.  Where  large  quantities  of  fruits 
are  grown,  a  building  will  be  needed  for  packing  and  tem- 
porary storage.  The  character  of  this  building  will  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  time  the  fruit  is  expected  to  remain  in 
it.  If  the  building  is  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  winter  store- 
house for  long-keeping  fruits,  it  should  be  provide.'  with  a 
cellar  that  can  be  kept  from  freezing  in  severe  weather.  It 
is  also  desirable  to  have  a  compartment  connected  with  the 
packing  house  for  the  storage  of  package  material,  but  this 
is  generally  a  second-story  room.  The  size  of  the  building 
will  of  course  depend  much  upon  the  amount  of  fruit  pro- 
duced.    It  should  be  arranged  with  reference  to  conven- 


16  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

ience  in  loading  and  unloading  fruit  from  a  wagon,  and  if 
intended  for  the  tree  fruits,  it  should  have  well-lighted  as- 
sorting tables  at  convenient  points. 

As  it  is  important  that  the  temperature  of  the  packing 
house  be  kept  cool  as  possible,  a  location  that  is  shaded  by 
trees  is  preferable,  and  the  house  should  generally  be  ceiled, 
plastered  or  papered  inside,  in  such  manner  as  to  provide 
an  air  space  in  the  wall.  Care  should  also  be  taken  to  keep 
the  building  free  from  rats  and  mice. 

If  the  house  is  built  in  a  depression  where  cool  air  settles 
at  night,  it  may  be  kept  considerably  cooler  than  if  located 
on  higher  ground,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
location  that  is  coolest  in  summer  will  also  be  coldest  in 
winter. 

19.  Storage  of  fruit.  Cold-storage  houses  are  so  costly 
that  only  extensive  fruit  growers  can  afford  to  provide 
them.  If  the  grower  desires  to  keep  his  produce  much  be- 
yond its  normal  ripening  period,  he  will  generally  do  better 
to  place  it  in  a  commercial  cold-storage  house,  paying  the 
required  rate  for  the  privilege. 

The  storage  house  is  most  economically  kept  from  freez- 
ing in  severe  winter  weather  by  sinking  the  floor  more  or 
less  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  generally  pre- 
ferable to  do  this  even  in  climates  of  mild  winters,  because 
this  aids  in  keeping  the  storage  room  cool.  The  depth  to 
which  the  floor  is  sunk  below  the  surface  should  depend 
upon  the  severity  of  the  winter  climate.  It  is  neither  de- 
sirable nor  economical  to  depend  on  artificial  heat  to  keep 
out  frost.  The  portion  of  the  wall  built  above  ground, 
whether  of  wood  or  other  material,  should  be  provided 
with  at  least  one  dead-air  space,  and  if  wood  is  used,  a 
layer  of  building  paper  outside  and  inside  of  the  wall  will 


General  Considerations.  IT 

tend  to  keep  out  heat  and  cold.  The  roof  of  the  storage 
room  should  also  have  at  least  one  dead-air  space.  If  the 
storage  room  is  placed  beneath  the  packing  room,  this  is 
readily  accomplished  by  ceiling  or  plastering  directly  on 
the  floor  joists;  but  if  the  roof  of  the  storage  room  is  also 
the  roof  of  the  building,  the  roof  boards  should  be  laid 
close,  and  a  layer  of  lath  and  plaster  may  be  added  just  be- 
neath them  and  ceiling  or  lath  and  plaster  may  also  be 
added  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  rafters. 

The  storage  room  may  be  kept  cool  in  warm  weather  by 
admitting  air  on  cool  nights,  and  ventilators  should  be 
provided  for  this  purpose.  A  ventilator  should  be  placed 
in  the  roof  for  the  exit  of  warm  air.  On  cool  nights 
the  ventilators  should  be  opened  to  change  the  air.  The 
warm  air  will  pass  out  through  the  roof  ventilator,  and 
cool  air  will  enter  through  the  lower  ventilators.  The 
ventilators  should  be  closed  during  the  warmer  hours  of 
the  day. 

20.  Classification  of  the  different  fruits.  In  treating  the 
culture  of  different  fruits,  it  is  convenient  to  arrange  them 
into  various  groups,  depending  chiefly  upon  the  growth 
habit  and  size  of  the  plant,  and  to  a  less  degree  upon  bo- 
tanical characters.  To  acquaint  the  student  with  botani- 
cal relations,  the  species  belonging  to  the  same  genus  are 
generally  treated  together,  and  their  common  characteris- 
tics, so  far  as  they  have  a  cultural  importance,  are  noted. 

The  three  principal  groups  to  which  the  fruits  treated 
are  referred  are: 

1.  The  tree  fruits,  including  the  fruits  grown  on  trees  or 
the  largest  shrubs. 

2.  The  grape. 

3.  The  small  fruits,  including  those  grown  on  small 
shrubs  or  low  herbaceous  plants. 


18  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

SUMMARY   OF   THE   PRECEDIXG   CHAPTER 

1.  Fruit-growing  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  is 
tending  to  become  a  business  by  itself,  rather  than  to  re- 
main an  adjunct  to  the  farm  (2). 

2.  Fruit  growing  requires  education  along  two  distinct 
lines,  viz, :  the  raising  and  the  selling  of  the  fruit  (3). 

3.  The  outlook  for  commercial  fruit  growing  is  as  good 
as  for  any  other  branch  of  productive  industry  (4). 

4.  The  choice  of  a  location  for  commercial  fruit  growing 
should  be  governed  chiefly  by  the  favorableness  of  the  soil 
and  climate,  and  the  opportunities  for  marketing  the 
fruit  (6). 

5.  Success  in  commercial  fruit  growing  will  depend 
much  upon  the  selection  of  the  proper  varieties  of  the 
fruits  grown  (7). 

6.  It  is  commonly  best  to  purchase  stock  for  planting 
from  a  grower  rather  than  from  a  middleman,  and  as  near 
the  place  where  it  is  to  be  planted  as  possible.  It  is  gen- 
erally wise  to  order  early  (9). 

7.  A  wind-break,  properly  grown,  is  beneficial  to  a  fruit 
plantation  not  already  protected  from  prevailing  winds  (10). 

8.  The  fruit  grower  should  provide  apparatus  for  com- 
bating harmful  parasites  and  diseases,  and  should  be  watch- 
ful for  their  appearance  (12). 

9.  With  a  fruit  in  its  proper  locality,  fruitfulness  prob- 
ably depends  more  upon  variety  than  upon  outside  condi- 
tions (13). 

10.  Owing  to  the  self-sterility  of  many  varieties,  more 
than  two  rows  of  the  same  variety  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be 
planted  together.  Varieties  that  bloom  at  the  same  time 
should  be  planted  adjacent  (14). 

11.  Fruit  packages  should  be  provided  early  to  avoid  de- 
lays in  harvesting  (15). 


General  Considerations.  19 

12.  Every  package  of  good  fruit  should  be  branded  with 
the  name  and  address  of  the  grower  (15). 

13.  The  degree  of  ripeness  at  which  fruit  should  be 
picked  depends  upon  the  use  for  which  it  is  intended  (16). 

14.  Fruit  should  be  graded  and  uniformly  packed  (17). 

15.  A  packing  and  storing  house  is  needed  where  large 
quantities  of  fruit  are  grown  (18). 

SUGGESTIONS   FOE  LABORATOEY   WORK. 

1.  Ascertain  the  different  kinds  of  fruits  and  nuts  that 
are  grown  commercially  in  the  vicinity  of  your  school  or 
college;  also  the  most  successful  varieties  of  each. 

2.  Ascertain  the  different  kinds  of  fresh  fruits  and  of 
nuts  that  are  sold  in  the  local  market  near  your  school  or 
college,  and  where  each  sample  seen  was  grown. 

3.  With  the  aid  of  a  railroad  map,  locate  the  place  in 
your  state  or  territory  that  offers  the  best  transportation 
facilities  for  marketing  fruit. 

4.  If  a  topographical  map  is  available,  ascertain  the  lo- 
cality in  your  state  or  territory  that  would  seem  to  offer 
the  best  location  for  fruit  growing,  independent  of  market 
considerations. 

5.  Select  the  best  location  for  a  fruit  farm  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  your  school  or  college. 

6.  Practice  nailing  up  the  different  kinds  of  fruit  pack- 
ages to  acquire  dexterity  in  the  work. 

7.  Study  the  methods  of  packing  illustrated  by  the  fruits 
exposed  for  sale  in  your  local  market,  and  observe  which 
methods  appear  most  satisfactory. 


20  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

CHAPTER  II 

TREE-FRUIT  OR  ORCHARD  CULTURE 
Section  1  —  General  Statements 

21.  Orchard — Definition.  Tree  fruits  are  commonly 
grown  in  orchards.  An  orchard  is  an  in  closure  or  planta- 
tion of  trees  or  large  shrubs  intended  to  produce  fruits  or 
nuts. 

22.  Orchard  sites.  Of  the  considerations  previously 
mentioned  regarding  the  location  of  the  fruit  plantation 
(6),  those  relating  to  freedom  from  frost  and  disastrous 
winter  freezing  are  perhaps  most  important  in  locatiug  the 
orchard.  A  site  sufficiently  elevated  to  give  good  air 
drainage,  and  sloping  if  at  all,  away  from  the  warmest  sun- 
shine, is  most  favorable  for  the  orchard  unless  it  is  near  a 
large  body  of  water.  In  the  latter  case  the  ground  should 
generally  slope  if  at  all,  toward  the  water,  regardless  of 
the  direction. 

A  young  orchard  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  planted  oa 
ground  from  which  an  old  orchard  of  the  same  kind  of  fruit 
has  recently  been  removed. 

23.  The  class  and  age  of  trees  to  buy.  Fruit  trees  are 
generally  graded  as  first  and  second  class,  the  first  class 
trees  being  straighter  and  more  symmetrical  than  the  sec- 
ond, and  commonly  selling  at  a  higher  price.  Unless  one 
can  see  the  trees  before  purchasing,  it  is  safer  to  order  those 
of  the  first  class.  Where  both  classes  are  equally  healthy 
and  free  from  insects,  however,  the  best-rooted  second-class 
trees  of  a  given  size  will  often  give  as  good  results  in  the 
orchard  as  those  of  the  first  class,  for  the  irregularities  of 
the  stem  and  branches  may  be  corrected  by  pruning. 


Orchard  Culture — General  Statements.  21 

As  a  rale,  rather  j'oung  trees,  provided  they  are  large 
enough  to  endure  isolated  planting,  are  preferable  to  older 
ones,  because  they  can  be  dug  more  cheaply  and  with  less 
damage  to  the  roots,  they  can  be  transported  and  planted 
more  cheaply,  possess  greater  vigor,  can  be  more  readily 
pruned  to  an  ideal  type,  and  their  first  cost  is  usually  less. 
While  such  trees  may  begin  fruiting  a  little  later  than 
older  ones,  they  are  more  likely  to  prove  enduring,  because 
th&y  commonly  develop  in  a  more  neai'ly  normal  manner. 

Nursery  trees  are  usually  graded  by  size  rather  than  by 
age,  and  the  size  is  not  a  sure  index  of  the  age,  since  some 
varieties  and  some  individuals  of  the  same  variety  grow 
faster  than  others.  In  a  given  variety,  the  individuals  that 
develop  at  a  medium  rate  are  probably  preferable  for  fruit- 
ing to  those  that  develop  fastest  or  slowest. 

24.  The  health  and  cleanness  of  nursery  trees.  Nur- 
sery stock  is  liable  to  infection,  both  in  roots  and  tops, 
with  injurious  insects  and  diseases,  and  destructive  para- 
sites are  sometimes  disseminated  with  such  stock.  The 
seller  should  be  required  to  show  certificate  that  his  stock 
is  apparently  clean  and  healthy.  Many  countries  now 
have  laws  requiring  the  inspection  of  nursery  stock,  and 
certificates  of  such  inspection  ma}''  generally  be  accepted 
as  evidence  that  the  stock  covered  by  them  is  safe  for 
planting. 

25.  Soil  preparation  for  orchards.  If  the  land  is  well 
drained,  and  free  from  stumps  and  stones,  little  special 
preparation  will  be  necessary  unless  it  is  designed  to  irri- 
gate, in  which  case  some  grading  may  be  required.  The 
soil  should  be  in  a  moderate  condition  of  fertility,  and 
should  be  prepared  for  the  trees  by  being  well  plowed  and 
harrowed. 


22  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

Land  witli  a  compact  or  impervious  subsoil  should  be 
deeply  plowed.  A  thorough  subsoiling  will  often  prove 
beneficial  for  deep-rooting  trees,  as  pears.  The  soil  of  the 
plat  should  be  rendered  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible  so 
that  the  whole  area  may  receive  the  same  after-treatment. 
Land  that  has  been  some  time  under  tillage  is  generally  pref- 
erable to  sod,  though  the  latter  may  be  used  if  the  ground 
was  well  subdued  when  seeded. 

26.  Laying:  out  orchards.  The  trees  are  usually  planted 
either  in  squares  or  triangles  (quincunx).  The  latter 
method  of  planting  admits  a  larger  number  of  trees  per 
acre  with  the  same  distance  between  the  trees.  Straight 
rows  in  the  orchard  should  be  insisted  on,  and  may  be  at- 
tained with  a  little  care.  Procure  a  strong,  firmly-woven 
cord,  not  less  than  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter,  and  as  long 
as  one  side  of  the  orchard,  or  less  if  the  orchard  is  very 
large.  Having  stretched  this  line  firmly  to  take  out  its 
elasticity,  tie  bits  of  red  yarn  tightly  about  it,  at  the  exact 
distance  the  trees  are  to  be  planted  apart.  On  a  dry,  still 
day,  stretch  this  line  tightly  along  one  side  of  the  plat  to 
be  planted,  to  mark  the  first  row,  and  drive  a  stake  at  each 
red  mark  on  the  line.  Then,  if  the  trees  are  to  be  planted 
in  squares,  place  the  line  exactly  at  right  angles  to  this 
row,  at  one  end,  and  mark  off  in  a  similar  way  the  dis- 
tances at  which  the  rows  are  to  be  apart.  Next  mark  the 
third  side  parallel  to  the  second,  after  which,  placing  the 
line  between  corresponding  stakes  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
plat,  insert  the  intermediate  stakes  in  the  same  manner. 

Tlie  triangle  method  is  a  little  more  complex,  since  the 
rows  are  nearer  together  than  are  the  trees  in  the  row. 
The  first  row  may,  however,  be  laid  out  exactly  as  de- 
scribed above.     Then  tie  a  cord  to  the  first  stake  at  one 


Orchard  Culture— General  Statements. 


23 


end  of  the  row,  stretch  it  to  the  second  stake  and  tie  a  short 
stake  into  the  line  at  the  exact  distance  of  the  second  stake, 
to  serve  as  a  marker.  Now  describe  the  segment  of  a  circle 


)^ 


J74feet'tn';ari^V 


Fig.  1.    IMethod  of  laying  out  orchards  by  the 
"triangle"  or  "quincunx"  system. 

on  the  ground  with  the  marker,  around  toward  the  second 
row.  (Fig.  1.)  Then  attach  the  end  of  the  cord  to  the 
second  stake  and  make  a  similar  segment  from  this  stake. 
The  point  where  these  segments  cross  (A)  locates  the  first 


24  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

tree  of  the  second  row.  Mark  in  the  same  way  at  the  other 
end  of  the  first  row  (B),  after  -which  stretch  the  line  and 
stake  off  the  second  row  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first. 
The  distance  between  the  rows  can  now  be  readily  meas- 
ured, and  the  rows  may  then  be  laid  off  at  this  distance  by 
stretching  the  line  at  right  angles  to  the  first  row.  The 
distances  between  the  rows  may  be  indicated  on  the  cord 
by  a  differentlj'-colored  yarn  from  that  used  to  indicate 
the  distance  between  the  trees.  The  first  stake  of  each 
alternate  row  should  be  set  one-half  the  distance  the  trees 
are  to  be  placed  apart  from  the  end  (AC).  Several  other 
good  methods  of  laying  out  orchards  are  described  in 
Bailey's  "Principles  of  Fruit  Growing." 

27.  The  planting:  of  orchard  trees  has  been  considered 
in  detail  in  "Principles  of  Plant  Culture,"  but  an  addi- 
tional hint  will  aid  in  securing  straight  rows.  To  avoid 
losing  the  mark  where  the  tree  is  to  be  set,  in  digging  the 


Fig.  2.    Device  to  locate  the  tree  after  the  hole  is  dug. 

hole  for  it,  use  a  short  board  having  a  notch  at  the  center 
and  a  hole  bored  through  it  near  each  end.  (Fig.  2.)  The 
holes  near  the  ends  of  the  board  should  be  exactly  equi- 
distant from  the  center  of  the  notch,  and  in  a  straight  line 
with  it.  Before  digging  the  hole,  place  the  board  so  that 
the  stake  indicating  the  position  of  the  tree  comes  in  the 
notch  at  the  center  (A),  and  put  other  stakes  through  the 
holes  at  the  ends  of  the  board  (BB).  The  board  may  then 
be  removed  without  displacing  the  end  stakes,  and  the  liiole 


Orchard  Culture — General  Statements. 


dug,  after  which  the  board  is  replaced,  wheu  the  bottom  of 
the  notch  will  mark  the  phice  for  the  tree. 

28.  The  care  of  young  orchard  trees.  Recently-planted 
trees  require  frequent  examination.  If  the  buds  do  not 
open  promptly,  the  top  should  be  further  reduced.  Un- 
desirable shoots  and  branches  should 
be  promptly  rubbed  off,  and  close 
watch  should  be  kept  for  harmful 
insects.  Shading  of  the  trunk,  in 
trees  that  do  not  start  vigorously,  is 
important  in  localities  where  the 
sun's  rays  shine  with  great  intensity, 
as  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  other 
central  continental  regions.  Wire 
netting,  straw,  or  screens  made  of 
lath  or  cornstalks  may  be  used  to 
pi-otect  the  trees  against  sun-scald, 
damage  from  bark-eating  animals, 
aud  in  a  measure  from  damage  from 
whiffletrees.  The  lath  screen  (Fig.  3) 
is  probably  most  durable,  but  it  does 
not  readily  adjust  itself  to  different 
heights  of  trunk  and  is  too  heavy 
for  small  trees.  Rye  straw  placed 
vertically  about  the  trunk  and  per- 
mitted to  extend  up  among  the 
branches,  tied  on  by  three  or  more 
bands  of  wool  twine,  makes  a  very 
■cheap  and  effective  protection  that 
will  often  last  as  long  as  protection  is  needed.  Straw 
protectors  do  not  appear  to  harbor  harmful  insects. 
Water-proof  paper  answers  well  for  winter,  but  should 


Fig.  3.    Tree  incl 
lath  protector. 


26  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

not  be  left  on  during  summer,  as  it  is  durable  only  when 
tied  close  to  the  trunk,  when  it  harbors  insects.  Protectors 
are  sometimes  made  of  cornstalks  by  passing  wires  through 
them,  but  the  labor  required  is  probably  sufficient  to  oifset 
the  cheapness  of  the  material.  Veneer  protectors  made 
of  cheap  lumber  are  now  manufactured  for  sale.  They 
are  readily  put  on  and  are  fairly  satisfactory.  Protectors 
made  of  mosquito-wire  netting  are  effectual  but  not 
durable. 

Trees  of  which  the  trunks  are  not  strong  enough  to  sup- 
port the  heads  should  be  staked,  preferably  by  driving  two 
stakes  on  opposite  sides  of  the  tree  and  tying  the  trunk  ta 
each  stake  with  a  straw  band  or  strip  of  cloth. 

29.  Soil  treatment  for  orchards.  Ground  planted  to  an 
orchard  should  be  used  for  orchard  purposes  primarily,  and 
should  be  given  the  treatment  that  best  promotes  the  devel- 
opment and  fruitfulness  of  the  trees.  Cropping  the  orchard 
for  the  crop's  sake  is  only  admissible,  as  a  rule,  when  the 
trees  are  so  young  that  their  roots  do  not  fully  occupy  the' 
ground  (31). 

Orchard  trees  in  the  temperate  zones  usually  complete 
their  season's  wood  growth  before  midsummer.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  warm  season  is  devoted  to  maturing  the 
young  wood  and  the  fruit,  in  forming  flower  buds  and  in 
preparing  food  for  the  early  growth  of  the  following  year. 
In  climates  of  severe  winters,  hardiness  of  the  trees  de- 
pends much  upon  complete  maturity  of  the  wood  in  au- 
tumn. 

The  soil  of  the  orchard  should,  therefore,  be  treated  to 
conserve  soil  moisture  during  spring  and  early  summer, 
and  to  promote  wood  maturity  during  late  summer  and 
autumn.    Tillage  should  usually  begin  early  in  the  spring, 


Orchard  Culture — General  Statements.  27 

and  continue  until  the  close  of  the  growth  period.  It 
may  continue  somewhat  later  with  entirely  hardy  trees, 
but  where  the  trees  are  liable  to  winter  injury,  moderate 
drying  of  the  soil  should  be  encouraged  in  late  summer  and 
autumn.  In  regions  where  irrigation  is  practiced,  this  is 
readily  accomplished  by  withholding  water.  In  other  lo- 
calities, dryness  of  the  soil  may  be  promoted  b}'  ceasing 
cultivation  and  sowing  a  "  cover  crop." 

30,  Coyer  crops  are  useful  (a)  in  taking  up  excessive 
moisture  from  the  soil  late  in  the  season,  (b)  in  preventing 
wash  and  loss  of  fertility  during  fall,  winter  and  spring, 

(c)  in  preventing  deep  freezing  of  the  ground  in  winter, 

(d)  in  hastening  drying  of  the  ground  in  early  spring,  and 

(e)  in  supplying  the  soil  with  humus  and  sometimes  with 
nitrogen.  A  cover  crop  should  be  sown,  as  a  rule,  about 
midsummer,  or  as  the  normal  growth  period  ends.  The 
leguminous  crops  are  useful  as  cover  crops  on  soils  defi- 
cient in  nitrogen,  since  they  enrich  the  soil  with  this  ele- 
ment; but  on  rich  land  on  which  trees  tend  to  grow  very 
rapidly,  a  cover  crop  that  adds  no  nitrogen  to  the  soil  is 
preferable.  The  particular  cover  crop  to  be  selected  will 
depend  upon  the  season,  the  climate  and  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil.  In  dry  seasons  and  climates,  and  on  land 
not  in  the  best  condition,  the  larger-seeded  crops  will  usu- 
ally prove  more  reliable  than  the  smaller-seeded  ones.  In 
all  cases,  a  sufficient  amount  of  seed  should  be  sown  per 
acre  to  furnish  growth  enough  to  make  a  good  mat  of 
herbage  over  the  soil  at  the  beginning  of  winter. 

Of  the  nitrogen-gathering  cover  crops,  the  clovers,  cow 
peas,  vetches,  peas  and  beans  are  available. 

Of  the  non-nitrogen-gathering  cover  crops,  rye  and  other 
cereals,  buckwheat,  millet,  turnips  and  rape  may  be  used. 


28  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

31.  Cropping  orchards.  If  the  trees  of  the  orchard  are 
planted  at  the  proper  distance  apart,  their  roots  will  not 
nse  the  whole  area  for  forage  the  first  few  years  after  plant- 
ing. The  unused  portion  may,  therefore,  be  devoted  to 
such  other  crops  as  tend  to  improve,  or  at  least  which  do 
not  injure,  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  provided  suffi- 
cient plant  food  is  added  to  maintain  fertility.  The  more 
the  land  inclines  to  drought,  the  less  should  it  be  cropped. 
An  area  at  least  six  feet  across  should  be  left  unplanted 
about  each  tree  the  season  following  the  tree  planting,  and 
this  area  should  be  considerably  extended  each  subsequent 
year,  for  the  roots  of  fruit  trees  spread  rapidly.  When  the 
orchard  begins  to  fruit  well,  further  cropping  should  be 
discontinued,  as  a  rule.  In  general,  only  low-growing, 
annual  crops,  that  demand  good  tillage  but  not  high  ma- 
nuring, and  are  harvested  early,  should  be  grown  in  the  or- 
chard. One  or  two  rows  of  strawberries  or  other  small 
fruits,  planted  between  each  two  rows  of  trees  the  same 
season  the  trees  are  planted,  may  be  admissible,  but  as  a 
rule,  early  potatoes,  beets,  carrots  or  peas  would  be  prefer- 
able. Grain  and  hay  crops  extract  too  much  fertility  and 
moisture.  Sod  in  the  orchard  is  especiall}^  objectionable, 
as  it  promotes  drouth  and  favors  insects. 

Over-vigorous  and  tardy-fruiting  young  apple  and  pear 
orchards  may  sometimes  be  rendered  fruitful  by  seeding  the 
land  to  grass,  but  the  sod  should  not  be  permitted  to  re- 
main until  the  trees  become  unduly  checked.  In  case  of 
such  seeding,  it  is  much  better  to  pasture  the  orchard  than 
to  remove  a  crop  of  hay. 

32.  The  kind  of  tillage  practiced  should  deppnd  upon 
conditions.  Young  orchards,  in  which  the  ground  was 
not  in  the  best  mechanical  condition  when  planted,  are 


Orchard  Culture — General  Statements.  29 

preferably  plowed  rather  deep  once  each  spring  as  early  as 
practicable,  for  a  few  years,  except  near  the  trees,  to  en- 
courage deep  rooting,  to  thoroughly  mix  and  crumble  the 
soil  and  to  retain  as  much  soil  moisture  as  possible.  Till- 
age later  in  the  season  may  be  given  with  the  harrow  or 
cultivator.  As  a  rule,  the  entire  sui-face  soil  should  be 
stirred  once  each  ten  days  or  fortnight  while  the  tillage 
lasts;  but  if  the  growth  of  the  trees  is  excessive,  to  the 
detriment  of  fruitfulness,  tillage  may  be  less  frequent.  The 
cut-away  or  spading  harrow  is  excellent  for  keeping  clay 
soils  loose,  and  may  be  used  after  heavy  rains.  The  spring- 
tooth  harrow  or  clod  crusher  answers  well  for  lighter  soils, 
or  after  moderate  rains  on  heavy  soil.  The  smoothing 
harrow  is  excellent  for  stirring  and  leveling  the  surface 
and  for  maintaining  a  fine  dirt  mulch.  All  of  these  tools 
should  be  provided  when  practicable.  Where  cover  crops 
are  grown  an  annual  spring  plowing  is  necessary,  but  the 
depth  of  plowing  may  be  reduced  as  the  soil  becomes  sub- 
dued. 

All  precautions  should  be  taken  to  avoid  injuring  the 
trees.  Harnesses  without  metal  projections,  and  short, 
padded  whififletrees  are  preferable.  Special  orchard  har- 
nesses that  use  no  whififletrees  are  now  made,  and  are  ex- 
cellent for  orchard  tillage.  The  plow  should  be  turned  out 
two  or  three  feet  from  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  A  single-horse 
plow  with  a  set-over  beam  is  excellent  for  use  near  the 
tree  trunks. 

Tillage  beneath  trees  with  low  tops  may  be  accomplished 
by  spreading  the  halves  of  a  double  harrow  or  cultivator 
with  a  long  doubletree. 

33.  High  or  low  headini:  of  trees.  Yery  high-headed 
trees  are  objectionable  for  several  reasons: 


so  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

(a)  The  leverage  of  wind  upon  the  trunk,  and  the  danger 
of  breaking  down  in  storms  are  greater  than  in  low-headed 
trees. 

(b)  The  expense  of  gathering  the  fruit  is  greater. 

(c)  The  damage  from  windfalls  is  greater. 

(d)  The  expense  of  spraying  and  pruning  is  greater. 
Very  low-headed  trees  are  also  objectionable  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons: 

(a)  The  difficulty  of  working  the  soil  about  thera  is 
greater  than  in  high-headed  trees. 

(b)  The  circulation  of  air  among  the  branches  is  hin- 
dered, which  results  in  increased  damage  from  fungous 


Low  heading  was  formerly  advocated  as  a  means  of  pre- 
venting sun-scald,  but  this  can  be  better  accomplished  by 
shading  the  trunk. 

As  a  rule,  a  head  of  medium  height  —  four  to  five  feet  — 
is  preferable  for  standard  trees.  The  dwarf  varieties  of  the 
plum  and  cherry  may  be  headed  somewhat  lower. 

34.  Principles  of  pruning:  orchard  trees.  The  general 
principles  of  pruning  are  discussed  in  "  Principles  of  Plant 
€ulture,"  but  a  few  points  that  apply  especially  to  fruit 
trees  are  here  added. 

1.  Before  attempting  to  prune  a  fruit  tree,  the  pruner 
should  acquaint  himself  with  the  fruiting  habit  of  the  spe- 
cies: i.  e.,  the  parts  of  the  tree  that  produce  the  flowers 
and  fruit. 

2.  The  pruning  should  be  such  as  to  encourage,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  normal  development  of  the  fruiting  parts. 

3.  Rapid  growth  and  fruitfulness  are  generally  opposed 
to  each  other.  The  parts  of  the  tree  that  grow  fastest, 
therefore,  usually  produce  least  fruit. 


Orchard  Culture — General  Statements.  31 

4.  The  growth  of  a  given  part  of  the  tree  is  largelj'  de- 
termined by  the  amount  of  water  it  receives  from  the  roots, 
and  this  depends  chiefly  upon  the  number  of  times  it  is 
diverted  by  branching  from  the  axis  of  growth.  It  follows 
that  the  parts  of  the  tree  that  are  most  times  diverted  by 
branching  are  most  likely  to  form  flower  buds,  provided 
they  receive  abundant  light.  Pruning  should,  therefore, 
favor  branching.  Vertical  shoots,  excepting  the  leader, 
should  be  discouraged.  The  branches  should  be  thinned 
sufficiently  to  admit  plenty  of  light. 

5.  The  bud  may  be  regarded  as  the  unit  of  growth,  both  of 
wood  and  fruit,  and  the  fruit  tree  may  be  regarded  as  two 
or  more  crops  of  buds  of  different  ages,  one  crop  of  which 
should  blossom  and  fruit  each  year,  while  another  crop  is 
produced  to  take  its  place.  Some  new  wood  must,  there- 
fore, be  produced  each  year,  to  provide  the  new  crop  of 
buds.  A  small  amount  of  growth  upon  all  of  the  branches 
should  be  the  aim. 

6.  Pruning  should  be  moderate  and  regular.  At  least 
one  careful  pruning  must  be  given  each  year.  Spasmodic 
and  excessive  pruuings,  if  intended  to  promote  fruitful- 
ness,  generally  do  more  harm  than  good,  as  the  immediate 
result. 

35.  Summer  pruning:.  As  vigorous  trees  start  growth 
in  spring,  buds  often  push  into  shoots  on  the  trunk  and 
branches.  Such  shoots  on  the  trunk  are  always  superflu- 
ous, and  should  be  rubbed  off'  before  their  leaves  are  fully 
expanded.  They  may  or  may  not  be  sui^erfluous  on  the 
branches,  since  they  may  develop  into  fruit  spurs  if  allowed 
to  remain,  but  they  usually  need  thinning  out  more  or 
less,  and  on  very  young  trees,  those  forming  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  branches  should  generally  be  removed.    Shoots 


32  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growmg. 

that  incline  to  grow  beyond  the  lines  of  symmetry  should 
be  pinched. 

Proper  summer  pruning  will  greatly  reduce  the  labor  of 
the  annual  pruning.  But  summer  pruning  should  be  lim- 
ited to  pinching  and  the  rubbing  off  of  incipient  shoots, 
as  a  rule.  The  removal  of  growing  shoots  after  their  foli- 
age is  well  developed  is  detrimental  to  the  vigor  of  the  tree, 
since  it  removes  the  leaves  that  have  been  formed  from  re- 
serve food  before  they  have  had  time  to  restore  the  food 
they  have  consumed. 

Branches  that  are  dying  from  fungous  disease,  winter 
injury  or  other  causes,  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  dis- 
covered. 

36,  The  fertilizing:  of  orchards.  However  fertile  and 
well-tilled  the  land  may  be  at  the  beginning,  the  yield  of 
fruit  can  hardly  continue  to  be  profitable  unless  fertilizing 
materials  are  added  to  the  soil  in  amount  corresponding 
to  that  removed  in  the  fruit  crops.  Prof.  Roberts  has 
estimated  that  an  average  crop  of  apples  removes  in  round 
numbers,  11  pounds  of  nitrogen,  nearly  one  pound  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  16  pounds  of  potash  per  acre.  These  esti- 
mates suggest  how  important  it  is  to  fertilize  the  apple 
orchard.  We  have  no  similar  estimates  for  pear,  plum  or 
cherry  orchards,  nor  for  nut  trees,  but  we  may  rest  assured 
that  these  crops  also  remove  large  quantities  of  plant  food 
from  the  soil. 

37.  How  Shall  we  know  if  fertilizers  are  needed  ?  The 
trees  will  furnish  the  evidence  to  some  extent.  If  these 
are  making  rapid  growth,  have  deep-green  foliage,  and 
mature  their  wood  well,  we  may  infer  that  their  needs  are 
already  satisfied.     If,  on  the  contrary,  they  grow  slowly 

J  Bulletin  103,  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station. 


Orchard  Culture — General  Slaicments.  33 

the  second  or  third  year  after  planting,  and  have  yellowish 
foliage,  while  being  apparently  free  from  parasites,  we  may 
conclude  that  their  growth  is  being  restricted  by  a  lack  of 
plant  food,  or  of  moisture,  or  both.  The  physical  condition 
of  the  soil  should  be  first  considered.  If  the  soil  is  hard 
and  lumpy,  humus  should  be  added  bj'  growing  some  of 
the  coarser  cover  crops,  as  rye  or  cow  peas,  or  farm  manure 
may  be  plowed  in  early  in  the  spring.  This  treatment  will 
probably  produce  the  desired  growth.  If,  as  the  trees  reach 
bearing  age,  the}'  are  making  very  rapid  growth  and  show 
little  inclination  to  fruit,  it  may  be  inferred  that  they  are 
receiving  too  much  nitrogen.  Non-nitrogen-gathering 
cover  crops  should  then  be  used,  and  the  proper  balance 
restored  by  adding  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Unleached 
wood  ashes  at  the  rate  of  30  to  50  bushels  per  acre  are  ex- 
cellent for  furnishing  these  constituents.  Leached  ashes 
are  well  worth  applying,  since  they  contain  nearly  all  of 
their  original  phosphoric  acid.  In  the  absence  of  ashes, 
jihosphoric  acid  and  potash  may  be  purchased  in  various 
forms.  The  first  may  be  had  as  high-grade  plain  super- 
phosphate or  in  bone  meal.  The  former  contains  16  to  18 
per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  200  to  500  pounds  per 
acre  is  a  good  dressing  for  a  bearing  orchard.  Bone  meal 
contains  about  24  per  cent,  of  total  phosphoric  acid,  and 
about  3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  Two  hundred  to  500  pounds 
per  acre  is  sufficient  for  oue  application. 

Potash  is  generall}'  considered  the  most  important  con- 
stituent in  orchard  fertilizers,  since  fruits  withdraw  larger 
quantities  of  this  component  than  of  nitrogen  or  phos- 
phoric acid.  Nitrogen,  while  relatively  more  expensive 
than  potash,  may  be  provided  by  growing  leguminous 
cover  crops.  Muriate  is  perhaps  the  best  form  in  which 
3 


34:  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

to  apply  potasli  where  wood  ashes  are  not  available.  One 
hundred  to  200  pounds  per  acre  is  a  good  annual  dressing. 

When  nitrogen  is  needed  it  may  be  directly  applied  in 
stable  manure,  of  which  a  moderate  dressing  will  usually 
suffice.  The  amounts  of  these  fertilizers  noted  may  be 
understood  to  apply  to  orchards  5  to  10  years  after  the  trees 
commence  bearing.  As  the  trees  attain  full  size  the  amounts 
may  be  considerably  increased. 

Potash  and  bone  meal  are  preferably  applied  in  the  fall. 
The  other  fertilizers  named  are  better  applied  in  the  spring 
before  plowing. 

38.  Thinning:  fruit,  i.  e.,  picking  off  a  part  of  the  fruit 
before  it  is  full  grown  to  enable  the  remainder  to  attain 
larger  size,  is  practiced  by  the  more  progressive  growers  in 
case  of  the  larger  tree  fruits.  Thinning  is  especially  im- 
portant in  very  fruitful  seasons,  and  in  varieties  that  tend 
to  overbear.  The  more  defective  specimens  should  be  re- 
moved as  soon  as  the  damage  to  the  fruit  by  its  chief  enemy, 
as  the  codling  moth  in  the  apple,  or  the  curculio  in  the 
plum,  becomes  visible.  Thinning  rarely  if  ever  increases 
the  total  yield  of  fruit,  but  it  often  materially  increases  the 
amount  of  the  first-grade  fruit,  and  it  tends  to  prevent  the 
harmful  draft  on  the  tree  caused  by  an  excessive  crop. 
Thinning  pays  best  when  the  fruit  is  grown  for  those 
markets  that  pay  special  prices  for  extra  fine  fruits.  It  is 
expensive  when  carefully  done,  but  it  dispenses  with  the 
cost  of  harvesting  and  marketing  the  part  of  the  fruit  that 
is  sure  to  yield  the  smallest  returns,  while  it  enhances  the 
value  of  the  part  left  on  the  tree. 

39.  Picking:  conveniences.  Various  devices  are  needed 
to  enable  the  picker  to  reach  the  fruit,  the  nature  of  which 
will  depend  much  upon  the  height  of  the  trees.  Whatever 


Orchard  Culture — General  Statements. 


35 


their  form,  it  is  important  that  these  devices  be  sufficiently 
strong  and  stable,  without  being  needlessly  heavy.  For 
trees  not  exceeding  12  feet  in  height  a  three-legged  step 
ladder  (Fig.  4,  A)  is  excellent.     For  taller  trees,  a  light 

B 


Fig.  4.    Types  of  fruit  ladders. 


ladder  that  can  rest  against  the  branches  (B)  is  generally 
preferable.  Extension  ladders  are  convenient  for  very  high 
trees.  Much  of  the  fruit  of  tall  trees  may  be  gathered  by 
a  light  and  nimble  person  standing  on  the  main  branches. 
In  this  case,  shoes  should  be  worn  that  will  not  injure  the 
bark. 


36  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

40.  Grading:  and  packing:.  Orchard  fruits  are  generally 
assorted  after  picking.  This  work  is  preferably  done  in  a 
cool  and  dry  place,  and  the  fruit  should  have  time  to  be- 
come cool  before  it  is  packed  for  market,  otherwise  it  is 
liable  to  become  moist  in  the  package.  The  fruit  is  con- 
veniently assorted  on  a  table  or  counter,  having  a  narrow 
board  nailed  edgewise  about  the  top  to  prevent  the  fruit 
from  rolling  off.  All  surfaces  touched  by  the  fruit  should 
be  covered  with  burlap  or  some  other  soft  fabric. 

The  number  of  grades  made  will  depend  much  upon  the 
kind  of  fruit  and  the  general  quality  of  the  crop,  as  well 
as  OD  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  sold.  If  the  finest 
grade  is  intended  to  suit  the  most  fastidious  customers,  and 
to  rank  as  "fancy,"  only  faultless  specimens  should  be 
placed  in  it,  and  these  should  be  of  uniform,  large  size. 
Such  fruits  may  often  be  advantageously  wrapped  in  tissue 
paper,  which  tends  to  insure  their  arrival  in  the  best  con- 
dition. With  choice  samples  of  the  larger  fruits,  as  the 
finest  varieties  of  pears,  a  package  that  gives  a  separate 
space  to  each  individual  fruit  will  sometimes  prove  a  good 
investment. 

If  the  quality  of  the  fruit  will  not  justify  a  "fancy" 
grade,  the  best  grade  should  still  contain  only  fruits  fairly 
uniform  in  size  and  maturity,  and  free  from  insect  injuries 
or  other  blemishes.  Doubtful  specimens  should  be  put 
into  the  lower  grade  rather  than  the  higher.  Two  or  more 
varieties  should  never  be  mixed  in  the  same  package,  ex- 
cept in  grades  intended  for  manufactured  products,  as  for 
cider  or  evaporation. 

SUMMARY   OF   THE   PRECEDING   CHAPTER. 

1.  An  orchard  site  should  be  sufficiently  elevated  to  give 
good  air  drainage,  and  should  slope,  if  at  all,  away  from 


Orchard  Culture — General  Statements.  37 

the  brightest  sunshine,  except  when  near  a  body  of  water, 
when  the  slope  should  be  toward  the  water  (22). 

2.  First-class  trees  should  be  purchased  unless  the  buyer 
can  select  the  trees  from  the  nursery.  Trees  sufficiently 
grown  to  endure  isolated  planting  are  generally  preferable 
to  older  ones  (23). 

3.  A  certificate  of  the  health  and  cleanness  of  nursery 
trees  should  be  demanded  (24). 

4.  Land  for  an  orchard  should  be  well  prepared  before 
planting.  Land  with  compact  soil  should  be  deeply 
plowed  (25). 

5.  The  quincunx  or  triangle  method  of  planting  trees 
admits  a  larger  number  to  the  acre  than  the  method  of 
planting  in  squares  (26). 

6.  The  trunks  of  recently-planted  trees  should  be  shaded  . 
for  a  time  in  climates  having  intense  sunshine  (28). 

7.  The  soil  of  the  orchard  should  be  treated  to  conserve 
water  during  spring  and  early  summer,  and  to  promote 
wood  maturity  during  late  summer  and  autumn  (29). 

8.  Cover  crops  are  useful  in  jDreventing  washing  and  deep 
freezing  of  the  soil,  in  taking  up  excessive  moisture  and  in 
supplying  the  soil  with  humus  (30), 

9.  Only  low-growing,  annual  crops,  that  demand  good 
tillage  but  moderate  manuring,  and  that  are  harvested 
early,  are  suitable  for  growing  in  the  orchard  (31). 

10.  The  soil  of  young  orchards  should  generally  be  well 
plowed  in  spring,  and  cultivated  or  harrowed  at  least  once 
a  fortnight  until  midsummer.  The  depth  of  plowing  may 
be  reduced  as  the  soil  becomes  subdued  (32). 

11.  A  medium  height  of  head  is  most  satisfactory  for  or- 
chard trees  (33). 

12.  Pruning  should  be  moderate  and  regular,  and  above 
all,  intelligently  performed  (34). 


38  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

13.  Fruit  crops  remove  considerable  quantities  of  fertil- 
ity from  the  soil,  and  the  orchard  should  be  fertilized  ac- 
cordingly (36,  37). 

14.  The  fruit  of  trees  that  tend  to  overbear  should  be 
thinned  in  fruitful  seasons  by  picking  off  the  more  defect- 
ive specimens  while  young  (38). 

SUGGESTIONS   TOB  LABOEATORT  WORK 

1.  Select  the  best  site  for  an  orchard  on  the  school  or 
college  farm. 

2.  If  a  nursery  is  within  reach,  select  samples  of  first- 
and  second-class  trees.  Practice  in  distinguishing  the  dif- 
ferent species  of  fruit  trees  by  their  appearance.  If  no 
nursery  is  conveniently  located,  samples  of  first-  and  sec- 
.ond-class  trees  should  be  procured. 

3.  Search  for  parasites  on  the  fruit  trees  in  the  vicinity, 
and  learn  the  names  of  the  different  species,  and  which 
ones  are  most  harmful. 

4.  Practice  laying  out  a  piece  of  ground  for  an  orchard 
by  the  triangle  method. 

5.  Compute  the  number  of  trees  that  can  be  planted,  by 
both  the  square  and  the  triangle  methods,  in  a  square  field 
of  10  acres,  the  trees  to  be  25  feet  apart  both  ways,  and  no 
tree  to  be  nearer  than  12^  feet  to  the  boundary  of  the  plat. 

6.  If  the  time  is  favorable  for  pruning,  practice  pruning 
both  young  and  bearing  fruit  trees,  carrying  out  the  prin- 
ciples laid  down  in  this  book. 

7.  Practice  thinning  fruit  if  the  time  is  right  and  over- 
bearing trees  are  at  hand. 


The  Pome  Fruits.  39 


Section  2.—  The  Pome  Fruits 

41,  The  pome  fruits  are  so  called  from  ilie  structure  of 
their  fruit,  which  is  a  pome,  i.  e.,  a  fleshy  fruit  containing 
two  or  more  carpels  ^  in  a  pulpy  expansion  ot  the  flower 
stem  or  calyx  tube.  The  principal  cultivated  pome  fruits 
are  the  apple  {Pyrus  malus),  the  imported  crab  apple  [Pi/riis 
baccata),  the  pear  {Pyrus  communis),  the  sand  pear  {Pyrus 
Sinensis),  and  the  quince  {Pyrus  Cydonia  or  Cydonia  V7il- 
garis).  These  are  trees  or  large  shrubs,  with  firm,  fine- 
grained wood.  The  flower  buds,  which  are  nearly  or  quite 
as  resistant  to  cold  as  the  leaf  buds,  are  always  terminal 
on  the  part  that  bears  them,  hence,  if  the  part  continues 
to  live,  it  must  branch  farther  back.  This  explains  the 
crooked  and  scraggy  fruiting  wood  of  these  trees.  The 
fruitfulness  of  the  pome  fruits  is  commonly  less  regular 
than  that  of  the  stone  fruits,  where  the  flower  buds  of  the 
latter  are  not  injured  in  winter. 

Productive  varieties  of  the  pome  fruits  often  bear  exces- 
sive crops  alternate  years,  and  little  or  no  crops  the  inter- 
vening years.  A  frost  sometimes  cuts  off  the  crop  over  a 
considerable  section  of  the  country,  and  as  a  result  of  the 
rest  thus  enforced  upon  the  trees,  the  orchards  bear  abund- 
antly the  following  season,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
more  productive  varieties  fail  to  bear  the  next  year.  The 
third  season  these  trees  will  again  bear  abundantly,  and 
the  fourth  year  the  crop  will  fail,  and  so  on.  This  has 
given  rise  to  the  opinion  held  by  some  people  that  these 
fruits  bear  only  on  the  odd  or  even  year,  as  the  case  may 

>  A  carpel  is  one  of  the  parts  of  a  compound  seed  vesseL 


40  Lessons  in  Fruit  Groioing. 

be.  Thorough  thinning  of  the  fruit  of  the  more  product- 
ive varieties,  when  they  produce  excessively,  tends  to  make 
them  annually  productive. 

A  —  THE   APPLE 

42.  The  apple  is  generally  regarded  as  the  most  import- 
ant fruit  of  temperate  climates.  Owing  to  the  wide  varia- 
tion in  season  of  maturity  of  its  numerous  varieties,  it  is 
available  in  its  fresh  state  throughout  the  year,  and  it 
serves  a  great  variety  of  uses  in  domestic  economy.  The 
adaptability  of  the  fruit  to  transportation,  and  the  product- 
iveness and  longevity  of  the  trees  in  favorable  localities, 
mate  it  the  cheapest  and  the  most  widely  known  and  used 
of  the  temperate  fruits. 

43.  Cultural  range.  The  apple  is  commercially  culti- 
vated in  southeast  Canada  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Lake 
Huron,  and  in  southwest  Canada  in  British  Columbia.  In 
the  United  States  it  is  more  or  less  grown  north  of  the 
35th  parallel,  except  in  the  arid  regions  of  the  west,  and 
north  of  the  -iSth  parallel  in  the  Mississippi  valley  and 
Great  Lakes  region.  The  hardier  crab  apples  succeed  some- 
what farther  north  than  the  common  apple. 

44.  Fruiting:  habit  and  pruning.  Figure  5  shows  a  twig 
of  a  bearing  apple  tree  as  it  appears  in  winter  and  early 
spring.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  part  from  the  apex  to  A 
grew  during  the  spring  and  summer  of  1900,  a  bud  form- 
ing in  the  axil  of  each  leaf.  Then  the  part  from  A  to  B, 
except  the  part  immediately  below  the  upper  buds,  grew 
in  1899,  and  the  part  below  B  except  the  short  branches, 
grew  in  1898.  These  branches  grew  in  1899,  forming 
flower  buds  F,  which  opened  in  the  spring  of  1900,  and  as 


The  Apple. 


41 


these  flowers  were  terminal  on  the  branches 
that  bore  them,  the  latter  could  grow  no 
farther.  They  would  have  perished  back  to 
the  main  stem  after  maturing  their  fruit, 
had  there  not  been  a  bud  beneath  the 
flower  to  continue  the  growth  (41). 

It  is  evident  from  the  figure  that  the 
buds  that  expanded  into  flowers  in  the 
spring  of  1900  were  two  years  old,  i.  e., 
they  flowered  at  the  beginning  of  the  third 
year  of  their  life.  Their  development  as 
axillary  buds  commenced  in  the  spring  of 
1898.  Buds  in  the  apple  do  not  often  flower 
younger  than  this.  The  lateral  buds  which 
do  not  push  into  shoots  may  form  embryo 
flowers  the  second  summer  of  their  life; 
they  often  do  not,  however,  until  the  third 
or  fourth  summer.  If  the  tree  is  not  pruned 
to  admit  sufiicient  light,  many  of  the  buds 
will  never  form  flowers. 

The  further  development  of  the  fruit 
branches  (spurs)  is  shown  in  Figs.  6  and  7. 
In  the  right  part  of  Fig.  7  is  shown  a  fruit 
spur  that  pushed  into  growth  as  the  result 
of  too  severe  pruning  of  the  main  branch 
beyond  it.  This  spur  was  changed  to  a 
shoot,  and  might  not  have  fruited  again. 

Since  the  fruit  spur  in  the  apple  must 
branch  every  time  it  flowers,  each  flower- 
ing brings  its  buds  in  less  direct  connection 
with  the  axis  of  growth,  hence  fruit  on  the 
older  spurs  will  receive  less  water  than  that 

Fig.  5.    Twig  from  bearing  apple  tree. 


42 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 


on  the  younger,  and  so  will  commonly  attain  less  size  (34). 
It  is  probably  wise,  therefore,  to  prune  off  the  oldest  fruit 
spurs,  as  the  trees  reach  full  fruiting  age.  Old  trees  that 
have  lost  their  vigor  from  the  formation  of  too  many  fruit 
spurs  may  be  renovated,  if  still  sound,  by  pruning  that  is 


Fruit  spurs  of  apple  showing  successive  stages  of  development. 

suflSciently  severe  to  start  new  growth  from  the  older 
branches. 

Age  at  ivhich  fruiting  begins.    Apple  trees  begin  to  fruit 
at  from  two  to  ten  years  from  the  time  they  are  planted 


Tae  Ajjple. 


43 


in  the  orchard,  the  interval  depending  much  upon  the  va- 
riety, and  to  a  less  degree  upon  soil  and  other  conditions. 
The  Oldenhurg,  Wealthy  and  Haas  are  among  the  earlier 
varieties  to  fruit,  while  the  Golden  Russet,  Northern  Spy 
and  Yellow  Bellflower  commence  fruiting  late. 

45.  Soil  for  the  apple.     While  the  apple  tree  is  adapted 
to  a  considerable  variety  of  soils,  it  has  generally  proved 

most  productive  and 
enduring  on  deep, 
rich,  well-drained  clay 
loams.  The  presence 
of  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  lime  in  the  soil 
has  been  regarded  as 
important  by  many 
writers. 

46.  Propag:ation.  In 
the  temperate  zones, 
varieties  of  the  apple 
are  propagated  almost 
exclusively  by  graft- 
ing '  on  stocks  grown 
from  seed,  and  the  seed 
used  should  be  taken 
from  hardy  and  vigor- 

Fia.  7.    An  old  and  much  branched  fruit  spur   Q^g  f;j-ees.      If  Seedlings 
of  the  apple  is  shown  at  the  left.    A  fruit  spur 
that  has  resumed  growth,  becommg  a  shoot,  is    ^^^    grOWn    trom    SeedS 

shown  at  the  right.  f  rom  cider-miU  pomace 

made  from  mixed  apples,  only  the  most  vigorous  ones 
should  be  grafted.     The  seedlings  are  usually  taken  up  the 

»  Budding,  by  which  many  apple  trees  are  propagated  in  some  sections,  is  one 
form  of  grafting.  For  detailed  directions  for  grafting,  see  "  Principles  of  Plant 
Culture." 


44:  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

autumn  after  the  seed  was  sown  and  heeled-in,  or  packed 
in  boxes  with  fine  moss.  They  may  then  be  buried  in  a 
well-drained  place  in  the  open  ground,  or  stored  in  a  cool 
cellar.  They  may  be  root-grafted  the  following  winter,  or 
planted  out  in  nursery  rows  the  following  spring,  to  be 
budded  during  the  summer  or  top-worked  at  a  later  time. 
Root-grafting  with  long  cions,  on  short  sections  of  root, 
is  generally  preferred  to  budding  in  climates  having  hot 
and  dry  summers  and  severe  winters.  Under  these  condi- 
tions the  root  grafts  are  more  likely  to  grow  than  inserted 
buds,  while  the  stock,  being  placed  rather  deep  in  the  soil, 
is  less  subject  to  winter-killing  if  tender,  than  when  worked 
above  ground.  Budding,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  prac- 
ticed in  mild  climates,  because  it  is  regarded  a  cheaper 
mode  of  propagation. 

Dwarf  stocks  for  the  apple.  The  apple  tree  may  be 
dwarfed  by  working  it  upon  what  is  known  as  Paradise 
and  Doucin  stocks.  These  are  dwarf  varieties  of  Pyrus 
malus  that  are  native  to  parts  of  Europe.  The  former  pro- 
duces the  shorter  and  earlier-bearing  trees.  Dwarf  trees 
are  valuable  for  testing  new  varieties  and  for  growing  upon 
small  grounds,  and  are  much  admired  by  some  amateurs. 
They  usually  begin  to  bear  in  two  or  three  years  after 
grafting,  and  at  five  or  six  years  of  age  often  yield  a  bushel 
or  more  per  tree.  Trees  worked  on  Paradise  stock  are  so 
dwarf  that  the  highest  fruits  may  usually  be  picked  by 
hand  from  the  ground.  Dwarf  apple  trees  have  not  been 
found  profitable  in  America  for  commercial  orchards. 

AX,  Age  and  distance  for  planting.  Apple  trees  are 
commonly  planted  in  the  orchard  in  the  northern  states, 
at  three  years  from  the  root  graft  or  budded  nursery  tree. 
Some  rapid-growing  varieties  become  large  enough  at  two 


The  Apple.  45 

years  from  the  graft  or  bud  while  slower-growing  sorts  are 
preferably  allowed  to  grow  four  years  in  the  nursery.  Old 
and  overgrown  nursery  trees  should  be  avoided  (23). 

Standard  apple  trees  expected  to  attain  full  size  should 
be  planted  not  less  than  30  feet  apart  and  in  localities  in 
which  the  trees  grow  with  much  vigor,  they  should  be 
planted  not  less  than  35  feet  apart. 

48.  Harmful  parasites.  The  principal  insects  that  in- 
jure the  fruit  of  the  apple  in  America  are  the  codlin  or 
codling  moth,  the  apple  maggot  and  the  apple  curculio; 
those  that  injure  the  foliage  are  the  tent  caterpillar,  plant 
lice,  the  canker  worms  and  leaf-rollers;  those  that  injure 
the  trunk  or  branches  are  the  apple-tree  borers,  the  oyster- 
shell  bark-louse  and  the  San  Jose  scale;  and  the  one  most 
injurious  to  the  roots  is  the  woolly  aphis.  Of  the  fungi, 
the  apple  scab  and  bitter  rot  affect  the  fruit,  the  fire  blight 
and  the  apple  scab  affect  the  foliage  and  young  twigs,  and 
the  apple  canker  affects  the  branches.  These  are  consid- 
ered in  their  order. 

49.  The  codling  moth,  {Carpocapsa  pomonella).  This  in- 
sect causes  so-called  wormy  fruit  in  the  apple  and  pear 
(Fig.  8).  It  is  one  of  the  most  serious  of  fruit  insects,  as 
fruits  infested  by  its  larvos  have  little  value  either  for  mar- 
ket or  home  use.  In  seasons  of  small  crops,  nearly  the  en- 
tire yield  of  fruit  is  often  damaged  by  this  insect  unless 
preventive  measures  are  used.  It  was  imported  into  this 
country  from  Europe  and  is  now  found  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada  east  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains. 

The  perfect  insect  is  a  moth  that  flies  mostly  at  night 
(g.  Fig.  8).  The  first  brood  of  moths  appear  about  the  time 
the  blossoms  open,  when  the  female  deposits  her  eggs,  usu- 


46 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 


ally  in  the  calyx  of  the  young  fruit  but  sometimes  on  other 
parts  of  the  fruit  or  upon  the  leaves.  The  egg  hatches  in 
a  few  clays  and  the  larva  proceeds  to  eat  a  passage  to  the 
core  of  the  young  fruit,  pushing  its  castings  out  behind  it 
and  enlarging  the  channel  from  time  to  time.  The  reddish- 
brown  castings  usuall}^  adhere  more  or  less  about  the  en- 
trance of  the  opening.  The  larva  (e)  feeds  on  the  interior 
of  the  fruit  during  three  or  four  weeks  or  until  it  attains 
full  growth,  when  it 
leaves  the  fruit  and 
seeks  a  secluded  place 
for  pupation,  which  it 
usually  finds  under  the 
rough  bark  or  in  cracks 
and  crevices  about  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  The 
injured  fruit  generally 
falls  from  the  tree  be- 
fore, or  soon  after  the 
larva  leaves  it.  In 
about  two  weeks 

(about      mid-sum  mer)         ^i^!-  S.    Codling  moth,  and  its  work  in  the  ap- 

^  pie.    A,  burrow  of  larva;  b,  point  where  larva 

the  moth  escapes,  after  entered;  d,  chrysahs:   e,  full-grown  larva  (the 

,  .    1     .,    •]  .,  apple  "worm");  f,   moth  with  wings  folded; 

WniCn  It  deposits  eggs  ^^  ^^^^  ^-^^^  -wings  spread;  i,  cocoon.    (After 

for    a   second    brood.   R'ley.) 

The  early  and  later  broods  are  not  sharply  defined,  but 
overlap  more  or  less,  so  that  the  larvae  of  the  early  brood 
may  not  all  have  left  the  fruits  at  the  time  some  of  the  sec- 
ond brood  are  hatched.  The  larvae  of  the  second  brood  be- 
come full-grown  during  autumn  or  early  winter  and  often 
do  not  escape  from  the  fruit  until  after  it  is  harvested.  They 
may  remain  in  the  fruit  during  a  considerable  part  of  the 


The  Ajpple.  47 

winter,  often  escaping  in  the  cellar  or  storage  house  where 
they  spin  their  cocoons  in  concealed  places,  from  which, 
the  moth  emerges  the  following  spring. 

Preventive  measures.  Spraying  the  trees  shortly  after 
the  petals  fall  and  while  the  calyx  of  the  young  fruit  faces 
upward,  with  water  containing  Paris  green  at  the  rate  of 
one  pound  to  200  gallons  destroys  many  of  the  young 
larvae  as  they  attempt  to  eat  their  way  into  the  fruit.  As 
the  egg-laying  period  for  the  first  brood  continues  several 
days,  and  as  the  young  fruit  expands  rapidly  at  this  pe- 
riod, a  second  spraying  should  be  given  7  to  10  days  after 
the  first,  and  if  rains  are  frequent,  a  third  spraying  after  a 
like  interval  is  advisable. 

In  addition  to  spraying,  bands  about  6  inches  wide  of 
burlap,  old  carpet,  other  cloth  fabric,  or  of  building  paper, 
should  be  placed  about  the  trunk  of  the  trees  to  entrap  the 
larvae  as  they  search  for  a  place  to  transform.  The  bands 
should  be  put  on  about  June  1st,  and  should  be  wound 
once  or  twice  about  the  trunk,  when  the  end  may  be  fast- 
ened with  a  tack  or  cord.  The  bands  should  be  taken  off 
every  8  or  10  days  until  September,  and  all  larvae  or  chrys- 
alids  found  beneath  them  should  be  destroyed,  after  which 
the  bands  should  be  replaced.  They  should  also  be  re- 
moved once  after  the  later  apples  are  harvested.  The  co- 
coons are  often  torn  open  in  removing  the  band,  permitting 
the  larva  to  drop  to  the  ground.  The  larva  should  then 
be  killed  so  that  it  will  not  form  another  cocoon.  Finally, 
all  fruit  that  falls  from  damage  infiicted  by  the  codling- 
moth  larva  should  be  promptly  destroyed.  Hogs  or  sheep  in 
the  orchard  aid  greatly  in  this  work.  In  the  absence  of  these, 
the  fallen  fruit  should  be  gathered  daily  and  fed  to  stock 
or  otherwise  disposed  of  to  destroy  the  larvae  they  contain. 


48  Lessons  in  Fruit  Go-owing. 

50.  The  apple  ina§:§:ot  {Trypeta  pomonella),  where  it 
abounds,  is  often  more  destructive  than  the  codling  moth, 
as  it  renders  the  fruit  worthless  for  any  purpose  except 
stock  feed.  It  is  most  destractive  to  apples  grown  on 
sandy  soil,  in  cultivated  orchards,  and  to  early  varieties. 
It  does  not  always  betray  its  presence  in  the  fruit  by  con- 
spicuous external  marks,  hence  infested  fruit  is  often  mar- 
keted, and  thus  the  insect  is  spread  to  new  localities. 
Fortunately  it  does  not  spread  readily  from  tree  to  tree, 
and  hence  is  not  likely  to  become  generally  disseminated. 

The  infested  fruits  generally  ripen  and  fall  prematurely 
and  the  larvse  do  not  escape  until  the  fruit  has  fallen,  hence 
by  promptly  destroying  all  fallen  infested  fruits,  this  insect 
may  be  kept  in  subjection.  Hogs  and  sheep  in  the  orchard 
greatly  aid  this  work. 

51.  The  apple  curculio  {Anthonomus  quadrigibbus),  in- 
jures apples  greatly  in  some  localities  by  stinging  and  eat- 
ing the  fruit,  making  it  ill-shaped  and  under-sized.  The 
beetle  feeds  considerably  upon  the  young  fruit,  making, 
however,  only  a  puncture  through  the  skin.  As  the  larva 
escapes  from  the  fruit  while  the  latter  is  attached  to  the 
tree,  it  cannot  be  destroyed  by  hogs  or  sheep.  Jarring  the 
trees  over  sheets,  as  de- 
scribed for  the  plum  curcu- 
lio, (99)  and  spraying  as  de- 
scribed for  the  codling 
moth  (19)  are  most  likely  to 
prove  effective  treatments. 

52.  The  tent  caterpillar 
[CUsioca  mpa     Americana), 

forms  the  conspicuous  tent-       Fig.  9.    Apple  curculio.  a,  back  view; 
,.,  ,  j_i      1  lb,  side  view,  both  magnified ;  natural 

like  nests  upon  the  branches    size  sliown  at  left.    (After  RUey.) 


The  Apple. 


49 


of  apple  trees  in  May  or  June,  from  which  the  numerous  cat- 
erpillars sally  to  forage  on  the  neighboring  foliage  (Fig.  10). 
The  nests  should  be  destroyed  before  fully  formed  by  rub- 
bing them  off  in  the  morning  or  evening  with  a  pole,  bear- 
.^  _  ing  at  the  end  a 


swab  of  cloth  wet 
with  kerosene  to 
kill  the  young 
caterpillars.  The 
rather  conspicu- 
ous ^gg  clusters 
(Fig.  11),  which 
are  deposited  on 
the  young  limbs, 
may  be  destroyed 
while  the  trees 
are  leafless. 

53.  Plant  lice 
(Aphidae).  These 
troublesome  in- 
sects injure  the 
foliage  of  the  ap- 
ple and  of  nearly 
all  other  fruit 
trees  by  sucking 
the  juices  from 
the  leaves.  They  chiefl}''  infest  the  lower  side  of  the  leaves 
and  are  most  troublesome  in  early  summer.  It  is  difficult 
to  apply  an  insecticide  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves, 
and  the  insects  being  more  or  less  protected  by  the  curling 
of  the  leaves  about  them,  are  not  easily  controlled  after  the 
foliage  has  fully  expanded.     The  buds  should  be  examined 


FiQ.  10.  Tent  caterpillar.  A,  side  view;  b,  back 
view;  c,  egg  cluster  with  gummy  covering  removed; 
d,  cocoon.    (After  Saundeis.) 


50  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

when  tliey  are  beginning  to  open  in  the  spring,  and  if  in- 
fested with  numerous  pLant  lice,  the  tree  shonkl  be  sprayed 
with  kerosene  emulsion.'  The  leaves  being  upright  are  then 
easily  reached  with  the  emulsion  and  a  small  amount  is  suflB- 
cient  to  wet  all  of  the  buds.  Should  the  insects  become 
numerous  later,  repeat  the  spraying,  applying  it  with  force, 
taking  care  to  wet  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  as  for  as 
possible.  The  operator  should  stand  near  the  trunk  of  the 
tree  and  direct  the  stream  upward  and  outward. 

54.  Canker  worms  {Anisopterix).  Two  species  of 
canker  worm  infest  apple  trees,  but  both  are  amen- 
able to  the  same  treatment.  The  eggs  hatch  about 
the  time  the  leaf  buds  expand  and  the  young  cater- 
pillars, which  are  of  the  class  known  as  "  measuring 
worms,"  feed  on  the  foliage.  They  are  readily  de- 
stroyed by  spraying  with  water  containing  Paris 
green  at  the  rate  of  a  pound  to  200  gallons. 

55.  Leaf  rollers  [Caccecia).  One  or  more  species  of 
leaf  rollers  feed  on  the  foliage  of  tJie  apple  tree  in  ^^'  ' 
spring  and  early  summer.  These  are  often  very  injurious, 
sometimes  almost  defoliating  neglected  trees.  The  treat- 
ments recommended  for  the  codling  moth  (49)  will  usually 
prevent  serious  damage  from  these  insects. 

56.  Various  other  insects  attack  the  foliage  of  the  apple, 
but  fortunately  most  of  these  are  active  early  in  the  season, 
when  they  may  be  destroyed  by  the  spring  sprayings.  A 
few,  however,  need  attention  at  other  times.  Late  in  sum- 
mer the  caterpillars  of  cecropia  moths  {Samia);  of  the  yel- 

» For  directions  for  making  and  applying  the  kerosaoe  emulsion,  see  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Plant  Cultm'e." 

2  Egg  cluster  of  tent  caterpUlar  attached  to  twig  of  apple  tree.  (After  Saun- 
ders.) 


The  Ajy^le. 


51 


2ow-necked  apple-tree  caterpillar  {Dafana  minisfra),  and 
of  the  red-humped  apple-tree  caterpillar  [Oedemasia  con- 
cinna\  often  do  much  damage,  especially  to  young  trees, 
by  consuming  the  foliage.  They  may  be  destroyed  by 
spraying  with  water  containing  Paris  green,  as  heretofore 
directed.  During  winter  the  cocoons  of  the  cecropia  moths 
and  of  the  apple-leaf  crumpler  [Phijsis  indigenella),  are 
conspicuous  on  the  branches,  and  should  be  picked  off  and 
destroyed. 

St,  The  round-headed  apple-tree  borer  {Saperda  Candida) 
injures  the  trunks  of  the  apple,  pear  and  quince.  The  per- 
fect insect  is  an  attractive  beetle  (c,  Fig.  12).     The  female 


Fig.  12.  Round-headed  apple-tree  borer.  A,  larva  as  it  appears  in  tree; 
b,  chrysalis  (both  slightly  enlarged);  c,  mature  insect  (natural  size). 
(After  Saunders.) 

deposits  eggs  late  in  June  and  during  July  on  the  bark  of 
the  tree  near  the  ground.  These  hatch  within  two  weeks, 
when  the  larvae  at  once  begin  to  eat  their  way  through  the 
bark.  The  insect  is  thought  to  remain  three  years  within 
the  trunk  before  the  beetle  emerges.  The  first  season  is 
supposed  to  be  passed  in  the  sap  wood  and  inner  bark, 
■where  the  larva  forms  shallow  cavities  an  inch  or  more  in 
diameter,  over  which  the  bark  often  becomes  dark-colored 
and  cracked.    The  next  season,  the  larva  continues  to  eat 


52  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

the  sap  wood,  to  which  it  does  great  damage,  and  if  several 
borers  chance  to  be  in  the  same  tree,  they  may  completely 
girdle  it.  The  third  season,  the  larva  (a)  eats  into  the 
heart  wood,  and  the  following  spring  escapes  as  a  perfect 
beetle. 

Preventive  measures.  Examine  the  trunks  of  the  trees 
near  the  ground  late  in  August  or  early  in  September,  when 
the  presence  of  the  young  larva  may  often  be  detected  by 
discoloration  of  the  bark  over  it.  It  may  then  be  cut  out 
with  a  pocket  knife  and  destroyed.  Later,  little  heaps  of 
brown  castings  on  the  ground  may  betray  the  presence  of 
the  insect,  which  may  then  often  be  destroyed  by  probing 
the  burrow  with  a  stout  wire  or  a  flexible  twig,  or  by  cut- 
ting through  the  bark  at  the  upper  end  of  the  chamber 
and  pouring  in  scalding  water. 

Soft  soap,  reduced  to  the  consistency  of  thick  paint  with 
a  strong  solution  of  washing  soda,  applied  to  the  whole 
trunk  early  in  June,  often  prevents  egg  deposit.  If  ap- 
plied on  the  morning  of  a  warm  day,  the  coating  soon  dries 
and  is  not  easily  washed  off.  The  application  should  be  re- 
newed in  the  early  part  of  July.  Removing  the  earth  two 
or  three  inches  deep  about  the  base  of  the  trunk,  and  paint- 
ing the  bark  thus  exposed  heavily  with  common  paint  is 
said  to  keep  out  the  larvae.  This  preventive  should  be  used 
only  on  trees  of  considerable  size.  Inclosing  the  trunk 
with  wire  mosquito  netting  is  also  said  to  be  effectual. 

58.  The  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer  {Chnjsohothris 
femorata)  is  also  very  troublesome  to  trees  of  the  apple, 
pear  and  quince.  This  insect  may  infest  any  part  of  the 
trunk  and  sometimes  even  the  larger  branches.  Its  mature 
form  is  a  beetle,  three-eighths  to  half  an  inch  in  length 
(d,  Fig.  13).    Its  eggs  are  deposited  under  the  loose  bark 


The  Apjyle. 


53 


scales,  or  within  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  hark.  These 
soon  hatch  aud  the  3'oung  larva  eats  its  way  into  the  sap 
wood,  where  it  excavates  broad  channels.  A  single  speci- 
men will  sometimes  girdle  a  small  tree.  The  insect  is  sap- 
posed  to  pass  its  transformations  in  one  year. 

Preventive  measures.  The  trees  should  be  examined  in 
early  fall  for  this  insect,  when  the  yonng  larva,  if  present, 
may  often  be  detected  by  discoloration  of  the  bark,  by  a 
flattened  or  dried  appearance  of  the  bark  over  its  burrow, 
or  by  the  presence  of  sawdust-like  castings  adhering  to  the 
bark.  The  larva  (a.  Fig.  13)  may  be  cut  out  with  a  knife, 
or  the  burrow  may  be  probed  with  a 
wire  or  flexible  twig.  Coating  the 
bark  with  the  soap  mixture  previ- 
ously recommended  (57)  aids  in  pre- 
venting the  entrance  of  the  larva. 

The  flat-headed  borer  is  most  likely 
to  attack  trees  of  which  the  bark 
has  already  been  injured  by  sun-scald 
or  otherwise. 

59.  The  oyster-shell  bark-louse 
[Mytilaspis  jJomorum)  (Fig.  14)  af- 
fects the  apple,  pear  and  quince 
fruits  throughout  northern  United 
States  and  Canada.  It  is  most  inju- 
rious to  unthrifty  trees.  The  scales,  which  cover  the  eggs 
of  the  insect,  are  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  long.  They 
are  colored  like  the  bark  and  are  shaped  somewhat  like  an 
oyster  shell.  They  are  mostly  attached  to  the  smooth  bark 
of  the  younger  branches  and  are  sometimes  so  numerous  as 
to  almost  conceal  the  bark.  The  eggs  hatch  late  in  May 
or  early  in  June,  when  the  lice,  which  are  so  small  as  to 


Ftg.  13.  Flat-headed  apple- 
tree  borer.  A,  larva  as  it  ap- 
pears in  tree;  b,  chrysalis; 
d,  perfect  insect.  (After 
Satmders.) 


54: 


Zessons  in  Fruit  Gi^owing. 


appear  to  tlie  unaided  eye  as  mere  specks,  leave  the  scales 
and  scatter  themselves  over  the  twigs  and  foliage  of  the 
tree,  subsisting  on  its  juices.  Later  they  largely  congre- 
gate about  the  base  of  the  side  shoots  of  the  terminal  twigs, 
where  they  gradually  secrete  the  scale  beneath  which  the 
eggs  are  deposited,  and  remain  until  the  following  spring. 

Preventive  measures.  Potash  dissolves  the  scales,  and 
kerosene  destroys  both  the  eggs  and  the  lice. 
By  spraying  before  the  leaves  appear  in  spring 
with  a  kerosene  emulsion  containing  an  abund- 
ance of  soap,  the  great  majority  of  the  eggs 
will  be  destroyed.  Watch  should  be  kept  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  spring  for  the  appearance 
of  the  young  lice.  If  these  hatch  in  lai*ge  num- 
bers a  second  spraying  with  the  same  material 
should  be  given.  Unthrifty  trees  should  bo 
restored  to  vigor  by  improved  cultivation,  ma- 
nuring or  stimulative  pruning,  as  is  most 
needed.  Often  the  restoration  of  vigor  re- 
moves the  greater  part  of  the  lice.  Young  trees 
infested  with  bark-lice  should  not  be  planted 
unless  treated  with  the  kerosene  emulsion. 

60.  The  San  Jose  scale  {Aspkliotus  pemichsus)  (Fig.  15) 
is  a  minute  scale  insect  destructive  to  nearly  all  fruit  trees 
and  plants  grown  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  On 
much-infested  branches,  the  scales  appear  as  a  grayish, 
slightly  roughened,  scurvy  deposit  which,  when  crushed 
by  scraping,  yields  a  yellowish,  oily  liquid.  Affected  twigs 
examined  with  a  good  hand  lens  during  summer  show 
orange-colored  larvae  running  about,  and  snow-white  young 


1  Oyster-shell-bark  louse  as  it  appears  on  twig  of  apple.    (After  Saunders.) 


The  Aj^2^lc. 


55 


scales  interspersed  with  brown  or  blackened  mature  scales. 
The  larva  are  produced  in  successive  generations  from 
spring  until  autumn  frost,  and  multiply  with  extreme  ra- 
pidity. The  San  Jose  scale  is  chiefly  disseuiinateJ  by  nur- 
sery stock.  (24) 


Fig.  15.    San  Jose  scale.    A,  natural  size;  b,  enlarged.    (After  Howard,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Preventive  measures.  Infested  nursery  stock  is  best  freed 
from  the  San  Jose  scale  by  fumigating  it  in  close  rooms, 


5G 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 


with  hyclroc3'anic  gas.*  Infested  orchard  trees  may  be 
sprayed  in  winter  with  a  solution  formed  by  dissolving  two 
pounds  of  whale-oil  soap  in  one  gallon  of  hot  water;  or 
■with  undiluted  crude  petroleum  of  a  specific  gravity  of  not 
less  than  43°  Beaurae.  A  single  spraying  is  not  likely  to 
destroy  all  of  the  insects  on  a  badly  infested  tree,  hence 
it  is  often  necessary  to  repeat  the  treatment  the  following 
winter.  Summer  sprayings  may  be  made  with  strong  to- 
bacco water  or  a  mechanical  emulsion  containing  ten  per 
cent,  of  kerosene. 

61.  The  woolly-louse  or  woolly-apMs  of  the  apple  (S'c/?/- 
zoneura  lanigera)  (Fig.  IG)  is  injurious  in  two  forms,  in 
one  form  attacking  the  trunk  of 
the  tree,  and  in  the  other  the 
roots.  Both  forms  infest  apple 
trees  of  all  ages.  In  spring  the 
presence  of  the  insect  is  indicated 
by  small  bluish-white  specks  re- 
sembling mold,  about  the  base  of 
the  shoots  growing  from  the 
trunk,  about  the  base  of  the  trunk 
itself,  or  about  recent  wounds  in 
the  bark.  Later,  the  cottony  coat- 
ing of  the  insect  becomes  more  dis- 
tinct and  adheres  to  the  fingers  when  touched.  In  autumn, 
the  insects  commonly  cluster  about  the  axils  of  the  leaves 
toward  the  end  of  the  twigs,  sometimes  appearing  in  such 
numbers  as  to  make  the  tree  look  as  if  whitewashed.  The 
lice  derive  their  nourishment  from  the  sap  of  the  tree  and 

'  The  method  of  preparing  this  gas  is  described  in  "  Principles  of  Plant  Cul- 
ture." The  trees  are  exposed  45  minutes  to  the  gas  formed  by  mixing  1  fluid 
ounce  each  of  sulfuric  acid  and  fused  potassimn  cyanide  (98  per  cent,  pure)  with 
two  fluid  ounces  of  water  for  each  125  cubic  feet  of  space  in  the  fumigating  room. 


W#' 


Fig.  16.  Woolly-louse  of  ap- 
ple. (Cut  from  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agricultiu-e.) 


The  Apple.  57 

the  numerous  punctures  thus  made  cause  wart-like  ex- 
crescences ou  the  bark.  In  cases  of  severe  attack  the  leaves 
turn  yellow  and  drop  and  sometimes  the  trees  die. 

The  winged  females,  which  appear  in  autumn,  fly  from 
tree  to  tree  to  deposit  eggs  for  another  generation  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  The  lice  can  endure  considerable  frost, 
and  in  mild  climates  pass  the  winter  about  the  base  of  in- 
fested trees.  This  form  of  the  insect  is  readily  destroyed 
by  two  thorough  sprayings  with  strong  kerosene  emulsion, 
or  if  onl}'  the  trunk  of  the  tree  is  infested,  by  applying  the 
emulsion  with  a  whitewash  brush  to  this  part. 

The  root-inhabitnig  form  is  a  more  serious  pest  where  it 
abounds,  than  the  aerial  form.  Infested  trees  are  indicated 
by  pale  or  yellowish,  scanty  foliage  and  feeble  growth. 
Unless  relieved,  they  sooner  or  later  die  or  blow  over  by 
the  wind.  By  removing  earth  from  the  roots  near  the 
base  of  the  trunk,  the  lice  will  be  found  in  clusters  about 
and  between  the  roots,  which  have  grown  knotty  and  dis- 
torted from  the  continual  drain  upon  their  juices  by  the 
lice.  The  roots  thus  injured  soon  perish  and  decay,  and 
the  tree,  if  large,  is  blown  down  by  the  first  hard  wind. 

Tobacco  dust  used  about  the  roots  is  a  specific  for  the 
root  form  of  the  woolly-aphis^  Infested  orchard  trees  may 
be  cleared  from  it  by  removing  the  earth  about  their  roots 
to  the  depth  of  4  inches,  and  to  a  distance  of  2  feet  from 
the  trunk,  and  scattering  5  or  6  pounds  of  tobacco  dust 
over  the  bottom  of  this  excavation,  after  which  the  dirt 
should  be  replaced.  In  much  infested  regions  2  or  3  pounds 
of  toljacco  dust  should  be  applied  each  spring,  to  each  or- 
chard tree,  as  abov^e  directed,  to  prevent  attack;  nursery 
apple  trees  should  have  a  liberal  application  of  tobacco 
dust  about  their  roots  each  spring,  removing  some  of  the 


58  Zessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

soil  as  above  described,  and  in  planting  orchard  trees,  to- 
bacco dust  should  be  freely  used  about  the  roots.  Ap- 
ple seedlings  and  root  grafts  should  be  planted  suffi- 
ciently deep  so  that  they  stand  in  a  shallow  trench,  which 
should  be  filled  with  powdered  tobacco  or  tobacco  dust 
lightly  covered  with  earth.  Newly-cleared  land  should  be 
cultivated  two  years  before  planting  with  apple  trees,  to- 
rid  it  of  the  woolly-aphis. 

62.  The  fire  blight  ^  {Micrococcus  amylovorus)  is  a  bac- 
terial disease  that  affects  all  of  the  pome  fruits.  The  spores 
of  the  bacteria  enter  at  the  tips  of  growing  shoots,  or 
through  the  open  flowers  or  wounds  made  by  insects,  and 
the  disease  works  its  way  backward,  destroying  the  tissues 
as  it  proceeds,  causing  the  foliage  and  wood  to  assume  a 
blackish-brown  color  and  to  emit  a  characteristic  odor.  It 
affects  the  pear  and  quince  more  than  the  apple,  as  it  pro- 
gresses much  faster  in  these  fruits.  The  more  succulent 
the  tissue  of  the  young  growth,  the  more  likely  is  it  to  be- 
come infested  with  fire  blight  and  the  more  rapidly  the 
disease  progresses. 

Preventive  measures.  Since  over-succulent  tissue  favors 
infection  by  fire  blight,  stimulants  to  excessive  growth,  as 
thorough  cultivation  and  heavy  nitrogenous  manuring 
should  be  avoided.  Free  circulation  of  air  about  the  tree 
should  be  encouraged.  Infested  shoots  should  be  cut  off 
and  burned  as  soon  as  discovered.  They  should  be  cut  six 
or  eight  inches  below  the  point  of  visible  infection,  as  the 
dead  tissue  marks  the  points  to  which  the  disease  has  fin- 
ished its  work,  rather  than  commenced  it. 

63.  The  scab  fungus  {Fusicladium)  affects  the  apple  and 
pear,  causing  blackish,  scabby  spots  upon  the  fruit  which 

*  Known  also  as  "  pear  blight,"  "  apple  blight,"  or  simply  "  blight." 


The  Apple 


59 


it  also  reduces  in  size  and  disfigures  in  form  and  appear- 
ance (Fig.  iT).  It  also  affects  the  foliage  and  younger 
twigs,  and  sometimes  the 
flowers,  even  destroying  the 
fruit  spurs  in  severe  cases. 

This  disease  is  propa- 
gated from  spores  blown 
about  by  the  wind,  which 
germinate  under  favorable 
conditions  of  warmth  and 
moisture.  It  is  most  de- 
structive in  warm  and  wet 
weather,  and  in  locatioDS 

Fig.  17.    Apples  affected  with  scab  (the  that    favOr    a  moist   atmOS- 

dark  spots).  (After  Lamson-Scribner.)  phere,  as  in  densely-planted 
orchards  or  on  branches  that  hang  near  the  ground. 

Preventive  measures.  The  free  circulation  of  air  among 
the  trees  and  branches  of  the  orchard  promotes  a  dry  at- 
mosphere and  tends  to  prevent  germination  of  the  spores 
of  the  scab  fungus,  and  to  retard  the  progress  of  the  dis- 
ease. Spraying  the  foliage  with  Bordeaux  mixture  greatly 
reduces  damage  from  the  scab  in  wet  seasons.  The  first 
spraying  should  be  given  before  the  blossoms  open,  to  be 
followed  by  a  second  after  the  petals  fall,  and  a  third  about 
a  fortnight  later.  In  very  wet  seasons,  sprayings  should 
be  more  frequent.  Good  culture,  proper  manuring  and 
pruning  do  much  to  reduce  damage  from  the  scab  fungus. 

64.  Bitter  rot,  also  called  "ripe  rot"  and  "bird's-eye 
rot"  {GlceosporiuiH  friidigenum)  is  a  fungous  disease  that 
affects  the  pome  fruits  and  the  grape,  especially  the  apple, 
on  which  it  is  often  very  destructive  in  south  and  south- 
west United  States.      It  occurs  as  the  fruit  approaches 


60  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

maturity  and  may  continue  to  develop  during  storage 
(Fig.  18).  It  appears  as  a  small,  circular  spot  of  pale-brown- 
ish tissue,  slightly  sunken,  which  increases  by  concentric 


Fia.  18.    Apple  affected  with  bitter  rot.    (After  Alwood.) 

areas.  The  affected  part,  which  usually  has  a  bitter  taste, 
becomes  softened  as  the  decay  extends  into  the  tissues. 

Preventive  measures.  Spraying  as  the  fruit  approaches 
maturity,  with  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbonate, 
or  a  solution  of  potassium  sulfide,'  tends  to  prevent  this 
disease.  Varieties  specially  subject  to  it  should  be  dis- 
carded. 

65.  The  apple  canker,  which  is  caused  by  the  fungus 
Sphceropsis  malorum^  is  common  and  often  very  destruct- 
ive in  orchards  in  the  older  apple-growing  regions  of  the 
United  States.  In  badly  infested  trees,  the  disease  is  indi- 
cated by  dark  and  enlarged  sections  of  the  larger  limbs,  on 
which  the  bark  is  thickened  and  much  roughened.  These 
diseased  sections  are  often  six  or  more  feet  long.     A  por- 

'For  formulae  for  these  spraying  compounds,  see  "  Principles  of  Plant  Cul- 
ture." 


The  Aj)jple.  Gl 

tion  of  the  wood  is  often  laid  bare,  but  the  dead  bark  also 
frequently  clings  tenaciously  to  the  decaying  wood.  The 
progress  of  the  disease  may  be  marked  by  numerous  pits 
or  scars,  which  are  usually  circular  in  form  and  may  be 
outlined  by  two  or  more  concentric  lines.  The  fungus  ex- 
tends down  from  diseased  branches,  or  from  canker  spots  at 
the  forks  of  the  tree,  destroying  large  areas  of  bark  and 
exposing  the  wood  in  ugly  wounds  in  aggravated  cases.  A 
majority  of  cankers  start  from  some  mechanical  injury. 

The  presence  of  the  fungus  in  a  newly  infected  limb  is 
indicated  by  a  small  area  of  discolored  bark,  which  extends 
slowly  in  all  directions  as  the  fungus  grows. 

Preventive  measures.  Cankered  limbs  should  be  cut  out 
and  burned  wherever  practicable.  Thorough  spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  at  the  times  recommended  for  the  scab 
fungus  (63)  tends  to  prevent  new  infection.  Wounds  in  the 
bark  should  be  promptly  painted,  or  coated  with  grafting 
wax.  Scraping  the  loose  bark  from  the  trunk  and  larger 
branches  of  bearing  trees,  following  with  a  coat  of  white- 
wash tends  to  prevent  the  sj)read  of  the  disease. 

66,  Picking  and  packing  apples.  Apples  are  fit  to  pick 
when  the  seeds  have  assumed  a  uniform  brown  color.  The 
earlier  varieties,  when  picked  for  a  distant  market,  may  be 
gathered  a  little  before  this  stage.  As  a  rule,  early  pick- 
ing tends  to  long  keeping. 

Several  devices  for  picking  are  on  the  market,  but  these 
are  of  little  use  except  for  reaching  apples  that  cannot  be 
reached  by  hand. 

Apples  are  commonly  packed  in  barrels  holding  two  and 
three-fourths  to  three  bushels.  In  some  states,  the  size  of 
the  package  is  regulated  by  law.  Choice  apples  of  early 
varieties  are  sometimes  marketed  in  bushel  or  one-half 


62  Lessons  in  Fruit  Gi^owing. 

bushel  baskets  and  occasionally  in  boxes  holding  about  a 
bushel  (Fig.  19).  When  packed  in  barrels,  the  first  two  or 
three  tiers  of  apples  put  in  the  barrel  are  commorAj faced ^  i.  e., 
placed  in  regular  rows  with  the  stem  end  downward.    The 


Fig.  19.    A  biishel  box  for  marketing  apples  and  pears  (size  10x12x18  inches, 
Inside). 

faced  apples  should  be  of  uniform  size  and  should  represent 
the  average  qualit}'  of  the  fruit  in  the  barrel;  they  should 
be  placed  in  concentric  rings  beginning  at  the  outside  of 
the  barrel,  and  those  of  the  second  tier  should  be  placed  in 
the  depressions  between  those  of  the  first  tier.  When 
apples  are  packed  for  shipment  across  the  ocean,  it  is  well 
to  face  the  entire  barrel,  as  this  ensures  close  packing  and 
tends  to  careful  assorting.  When  packed  for  home  trade, 
only  one  end  of  the  barrel  is  commonly  faced.  The  un- 
faced  apples  may  be  put  in  with  a  small,  swing-handled 
Isasket,  that  can  be  turned  over  in  the  barrel,  and  the  barrel 
should  be  shaken  a  little  as  each  basketful  is  emptied.  The 
barrel  may  be  filled  nearly  even  full  from  the  basket,  and 
the  last  apples  put  in  should  project  about  an  inch  above 
the  top  of  the  barrel,  but  if  the  contents  of  the  whole  barrel 
are  faced,  the  last  tier  should  project  but  little  above  the 
top,  as  they  are  packed  closer  when  all  are  faced  than  when 


The  Apple. 


63 


the  greater  part  are  poured  in  from  the  basket.  The  head 
of  the  barrel  is  then  placed  on  the  apples  and  the  upper 
hoops  driven  up  sufficiently  so  that  the  head  may  be 
pressed  down  to  its  place.  The  press  is  then  applied  as 
shown  in  Fig.  20,  taking  care  that  all  parts  of  the  head 
^  settle  evenly.  It  is  often  necessary  to 
change  the  bearing  point  of  the  press 
to  accomplish  this.  The  hoops  should 
next  be  driven  down  to  their  proper 
place,  when  the  head  should  be  se- 
curely nailed  by  driving  small  nails 
through  the  uppermost  hoop  at  such 
an  angle  that  they  will  enter  the  head 
near  its  surface.  For  long  transpor- 
tation, it  is  well  to  tack  a  slender  strip 
of  wood  inside  the  chine  at  each  end  of 
the  barrel,  nailing  downward  into  the 
staves  and  against  the  head  so  as  to 
give  additional  support  to  the  ends  of 
the  latter.  The  head  that  formed  the  bottom  of  the  barrel 
in  filling  is  generally  stenciled,  and  is  expected  to  be  re- 
moved when  the  barrel  is  opened,  but  the  dealer  often  opens 
the  unstenciled  head,  to  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  quality  of 
the  packing. 

6t.  Influence  of  §:rowtli  conditions  on  the  character  of 
apples.  The  season  of  maturity  of  apjales,  and  the  length 
of  time  they  keep,  depend  much  upon  the  climate  in  which 
they  are  grown.  The  winter  apples  of  northern  United 
States  are  autumn  apples  when  grown  farther  south. 
Some  winter  apples  of  the  northern  states  are  early  autumn 
apples  when  grown  in  Georgia.  Many  excellent  northern 
varieties  have  little  value  farther  south,  and  vice  versa. 


for  packing 


64:  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

It  is  said  that  the  flavor  and  keeping  qualities  of  apples 
are  considerably  affected  by  the  soil  on  which  they  are 
grown,  and  that  apples  grown  on  strong,  heavy  soils  are 
finer  in  flavor,  higher  in  specific  gravity,  and  possess  better 
keeping  quality  than  those  grown  on  lighter  soils.  Apples 
grown  on  healthy  trees  keep  better  than  those  grown  6n 
feeble,  poorly-fed  or  parasite-injured  trees. 

68.  The  crab  apple.  The  fruit  of  the  crab  apple  is  smaller, 
firmer  in  flesh,  and  is  borne  more  in  clusters  than  that  of 
the  common  apple;  the  foliage  and  shoots  are  smoother 
and  the  shoots  and  fruit  spurs  are  more  slender.  The  tree 
is  more  resistant  to  the  cold  than  that  of  the  common 
apple,  which  adapts  it  to  severe  climates.  The  fruit  is 
chiefly  used  for  jelly,  cider  and  preserves.  Two  species  of 
the  crab  apple  are  native  to  the  United  States,  but  the  one 
coDimonly  cultivated  here  was  introduced  from  Europe. 
The  latter  hybridizes  freely  with  the  common  apple;  some 
valuable  hybrids  have  thus  been  obtained. 

The  culture  of  the  crab  apple  does  not  differ  from  that 
of  the  common  apple. 

SUMMARY   OP   THE   PRECEDING   SECTION 

1.  The  apple  commonly  fruits  on  short  branches  (spurs) 
from  three  or  four-year-old  wood.  After  the  spurs  have 
fruited  once,  the}'  may  fruit  annually  or  biennially  there- 
after (44). 

2.  Old  fruit  spurs  of  the  apple  commonly  produce  small 
fruit  because  the  nourishing  sap  must  pass  through  so 
many  branches.  It  is  probably  best  to  prune  off  the  older 
spurs  (44). 

3.  The  apple  tree  has  generally  proved  most  productive 
and  enduring  on  deep,  rich,  well-drained  clay  loams  (45). 


The  Ajp2)le.  65 

4.  The  apple  is  mostly  propagated  by  budding  or  root- 
grafting  on  apple  seedlings.  Root-grafting  with  long  cions 
is  preferred  in  severe  climates  (46). 

5.  Apple  trees  are  commonly  planted  in  the  orchard  at 
three  years  old  from  the  bud  or  root  graft.  If  expected  to 
attain  full  size,  they  should  not  be  set  less  tban  30  to  35  feet 
apart. 

6.  The  codling  moth,  canker  worms  and  leaf  rollers 
may  be  held  in  check  by  timely  and  thorough  sprayings 
with  water  containing  Paris  green  at  the  rate  of  1  pound 
to  200  gallons.  For  the  first-named  insect,  bands  of  burlap 
placed  about  the  trees  in  summer  are  helpful  by  enticing 
the  larvas  to  pupate  where  they  may  be  easily  destroyed; 
gathering  and  feeding  out  the  fallen  infested  fruit  is  also 
helpful  (49,  54,  55). 

T.  The  apple-tree  borers  may  be  held  in  check  by  prob- 
ing their  burrows  with  a  flexible  twig,  by  washing  the 
trunk  with  the  soap-soda  solution  or  by  painting  the  trunk 
thickly  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  with  common 
paint  (57,  58). 

8.  The  oyster-shell  bark-louse  inay  be  controlled  by  keep- 
ing the  trees  in  a  vigorous  condition,  or  by  spraying  the 
infested  parts  with  a  kerosene  emulsion  containing  an 
abundance  of  soap  (59). 

9.  The  San  Jose  scale  may  be  removed  from  nursery 
trees  by  fumigating  them  in  a  close  room  with  hydrocy- 
anic gas.  Orchard  trees  may  usually  be  freed  from  it  by 
spraying  them  during  winter  with  a  solution  of  whale-oil 
soap  or  with  crude  petroleum  (60). 

10.  The  aerial  form  of  the  woolly-louse  may  be  controlled 
by  spraying  with  a  strong  kerosene  emulsion,  and  the  root 
form  by  the  free  use  of  tobacco  dust  about  the  roots  (61). 

5 


6Q  Lessons  iii  Fruit  Growing. 

11.  The  fire  blight  may  be  held  in  check  in  part  by 
avoiding  stimulants  to  rapid  growth  and  by  burning  in- 
fested shoots  (62). 

12.  The  apple  scab  may  be  largely  controlled  by  thor- 
ough spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  (63). 

13.  The  bitter  rot  may  be  held  in  check  by  spraying,  as 
the  fruit  approaches  maturity,  with  ammoniacal  solution 
of  copper  carbonate  or  potassium  sulfide  solution  (64). 

14.  The  apple  canker  may  be  in  part  controlled  by  cut- 
ting off  and  burning  infested  limbs,  by  spraying  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  by  covering  wounds  with  paint  or  grafting 
wax  and  by  whitewashing  the  trunk  and  larger  branches 
(65). 

15.  Apples  are  commonly  marketed  in  barrels,  baskets 
or  boxes.  When  packed  in  barrels,  the  first  two  or  three 
layers  put  in  are  "  faced  "  and  the  filled  barrel  is  moder- 
ately pressed  i^^). 

16.  The  season  of  maturity,  keeping  period  and  quality 
of  apples  depend  much  upon  the  environment  in  which  they 
are  grown  (67). 

IT.  The  crab  apple  resists  cold  better  than  the  common 
apple,  but  it  is  adapted  only  for  culinary  purposes  and 
cider  (68). 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR  LABORATORY   WORK 

1.  Study  Fig.  7,  and  ascertain  the  minimum  age  of  the 
oldest  part  of  the  much-branched  fruit  spur,  referring  to 
Fig.  6  for  the  method. 

2.  Study  fruit  spurs  from  bearing  apple  trees,  ascertain- 
ing the  number  of  times  each  has  blossomed,  and  the  prob- 
able age  of  the  different  parts. 

3.  If  the  students  have  not  had  lessons  in  grafting,  give 


The  Pear.  67 

them  practice  in  root-  and  top-grafting,  and  budding  the 
apple,  providing  the  time  of  year  is  suitable. 

4.  Study  any  of  the  insects  and  diseases  named  as  harm- 
ful to  the  apple,  of  which  samples  can  be  found,  and  apply 
the  preventive  methods  so  far  as  practicable. 

5.  Practice  in  picking,  assorting  and  barreling  apples  if 
the  time  of  year  admits. 

6.  Study  the  methods  of  assorting  and  packing  apples  as 
illustrated  in  your  local  market,  and  if  possible,  compare 
the  quality  of  the  same  variety  from  different  sources. 

B  —  THE  PEAR 

69.  The  pear.  The  finer  varieties  of  the  pear  are  among 
the  most  delicious  of  fruits.  Perhaps  no  other  fruit  has 
been  more  improved  by  cultivation.  While  the  finer  pears 
may  excel  the  apple  in  edible  quality,  the  pear  is  of  less 
commercial  and  domestic  importance  than  the  apple,  owing 
to  its  narrower  cultural  range. 

to.  Cultural  range.  The  pear  is  nearly  as  resistant  to 
cold  as  the  apple,  but  owing  to  its  great  susceptibility  to 
fire  blight  (62),  it  succeeds  Avell  only  in  special  locations. 
It  is  grown  on  a  commercial  scale  chiefly  in  the  part  of  the 
United  States  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  on 
the  Pacific  coast.  It  does  not  succeed  well  in  the  Southern 
States,  and  is  little  grown  in  Canada. 

tl.  Soils  and  sites.  Since  fire-blight  is  the  chief  ob- 
stacle to  the  culture  of  the  pear  within  its  climatic  range, 
aud  since  this  disease  is  favored  by  the  conditions  that  favor 
rapid  growth  (62),  the  soil  and  site  for  the  pear  orchard 
sliould  be  such  as  do  not  stimulate  rapid  growth  in  warm 
weather.  A  well-drained  clay  soil  of  moderate  fertility, 
and  a  cool  and  airy  location,  should  therefore  be  selected 
for  the  pear  orchard. 


€8 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing, 


72.  Fruiting  habit.  The  fruiting  habit  of  the  pear  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  apple.  The  growth  of  the  fruit 
spurs  is  apt  to  be  a  little  more  rapid  (Fig.  21),  and  the  buds 
are  perhaps  more  likely  to  form 
flowers  the  first  year  of  their  life 
than  in  case  of  the  apple.  The 
tree  comes  into  bearing  at  about 
the  same  age  as  the  apple  tree, 
but  as  it  seldom  attains  so  large  a 
size,  individual  trees  are  not  often 
as  productive  as  apple  trees  of  the 
same  age. 

13.  Soil  treatment  and  prun- 
ing.  To  avoid  fire  blight  (62)  the 
tillage  of  the  standard  ^  pear  or- 
chard should  be  less  thorough 
than  that  recommended  for  or- 
chards in  general  (29).  Nitroge- 
nous cover  crops,  and  manures 
rich  in  nitrogen,  should  com- 
monly be  avoided,  but  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  may  be  freely 
used. 

The  pruning   of  the  standard 
pear  tree  should  be  very  similar 
to  that  recommended  for  the  apple  (44,  34),  but  it  is  espe- 
cially important  to  avoid  over-pruning. 

t4.  Propagation  of  the  pear.  The  best  stock  for  stand- 
ard pear  trees  is  seedlings  of  their  own  species.  The  seeds 
should  be  separated  from  the  pulp,  stratified  in  sand  and 

>  The  word  standard,  when  applied  to  a  fruit  tree,  means  that  the  tree  is  ex- 
pected to  attain  its  normal  height;  L  e.,  that  it  has  not  been  dwarfed  by  graft- 
ing it  on  dwarf  stock  (75). 


Fig.  21.  Old  fruit  spur  of  pear. 
CAdaptedfrom  Bailey's  "Prun- 
ing Book.") 


The  Fear.  69 

buried  a  few  inches  deep,  in  a  well-drained  place  during 
winter,  to  be  taken  up  and  planted  early  in  spring.  The 
soil  for  the  seed  bed  should  be  moist,  deep  and  rich,  and 
should  contain  a  large  amount  of  humus.  Lime  and  ashes 
are  thought  to  be  especially  useful. 

The  seeds  should  be  sown  thinly  in  drills,  one  to  two  feet 
apart,  and  the  ground  between  the  drills  should  be  kept 
clean  and  well  cultivated  to  avoid  leaf  blight  (82). 

Pear  seedlings  make  few  lateral  roots  the  first  season  and 
hence  are  likely  to  be  heaved  out  by  freezing  of  the  soil 
during  winter.  To  prevent  this,  the  ground  between  the 
drills  may  be  heavily  mulched  with  leaves  in  autumn. 
Mice  may  be  kept  out  by  surrounding  the  bed  with  a  ridge 
of  fresh  earth  a  foot  or  more  high. 

Another  method  of  preserving  the  seedlings  is  to  bury 
them  late  in  autumn  in  a  cellar,  or  in  a  well-drained  spot 
in  the  open  ground. 

Grafting  the  year.  Root  grafting  is  successful  with  the 
pear  only  when  large,  entire  and  branching  roots  are  used, 
and  when  the  grafts  are  inserted  above  the  crown.  Bud- 
ding the  stocks  the  second  year  of  their  growth  is  more 
commonly  practiced  than  root  grafting.  The  pear  may  be 
top-grafted  with  considerable  facility,  but  in  climates  of 
severe  winters  the  cions  should  always  be  cut  in  autumn. 

^■5.  Dwarf  pears.  The  pear  is  sometimes  worked  on  the 
French  quince.  Trees  thus  grown  are  much  dwarfed,  come 
very  early  into  bearing  and  thrive  on  some  soils  where  pear 
stocks  fail.  Sometimes  the  quality  of  the  fruit  is  improved 
by  grafting  the  pear  in  this  way.  Different  varieties  of 
the  pear  do  not  grow  with  equal  facility  on  the  quince;  a 
few  kinds  can  be  worked  upon  it  successfully  only  by  graft- 
ing upon  a  pear  that  is  already  growing  upon  a  quince. 


70  Lesso7is  in  Fruit  Growing, 

The  size  of  the  fruit  is  generally  increased  by  working  on  the 
quince,  but  it  sometimes  appears  to  be  rendered  more  gritty 
in  texture.  A  few  varieties,  as  the  Angouleme,  are  so  much 
improved  when  grown  on  the  quince  that  they  are  seldom 
grown  otherwise. 

In  planting  dwarf  pears,  the  quince  stock  is  commonly 
placed  a  little  below  the  surface  to  evade  the  round-headed 
borer  (57),  which  often  attacks  the  quince,  but  rarely  th& 
pear.  The  trees  are  commonly  pruned  to  a  conical  form, 
6  or  7  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base  and  10  or  12  feet  in 
height,  the  lower  branches  reaching  nearly  to  the  ground. 
Dwarf  pear  trees  grow  less  rapidly  than  those  grafted  on 
pear  roots.  They  are  therefore  less  susceptible  to  blight  (62), 
and  may  be  given  more  thorough  cultivation  and  more 
frequent  manuring.  Dwarf  pear  trees  are  also  more  se- 
verely pruned  than  standards.  The  new  growth  is  annu- 
ally cut  back  to  within  4  to  8  buds  of  the  base,  and  the 
branches  are  well  thinned  out. 

16.  Distance  for  plantinif.  Standard  pear  trees  are  usu- 
ally planted  16  to  20  feet  apart  each  way.  Dwarf  trees 
may  be  planted  10  to  12  feet  apart. 

TT.  When  to  pick  pears.  The  stage  of  maturity  suit- 
able for  picking  pears  is  commonly  indicated  by  a  slight 
change  in  color  of  the  skin  and  by  the  readiness  with  which 
the  stem  separates  from  the  tree.  As  a  rule,  the  pear  is 
considered  fit  to  pick  when  the  stem  detaches  from  the  tree 
on  lifting  the  fruit  until  the  blossom  end  is  on  a  level  with 
the  stem.  Unlike  most  other  fruits,  the  quality  of  the 
pear  is  improved  by  picking  before  it  begins  to  soften. 
The  finer  sorts,  however,  as  the  Bartlett  and  Seckel,  suffer 
less  when  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  tree  than  poorer  ones. 
Summer  pears  usually  color  better  when  ripened  in  the 


The  Pear.  71 

dark.  Bureau  drawers  are  excellent  for  this  purpose.  In 
the  absence  of  drawers,  the  pears  may  be  placed  on  shelves 
between  layers  of  woolen  cloth. 

Winter  pears  should  not  be  picked  until  damage  from 
frost  is  feared. 

The  quality  of  ripe  pears  depends  considerably  upon  the 
environment  in  which  they  are  grown.  A  variety  possess- 
ing the  highest  quality  when  grown  on  a  favorable  soil, 
with  good  culture,  may  be  greatly  inferior  or  worthless 
grown  on  uncongenial  soil,  with  improper  treatment. 

T8.  Packing:  the  pear  for  market.  Pears  are  packed  for 
market  in  baskets,  boxes,  kegs  and  barrels,  the  smaller 
packages  being  used  for  the  finer  qualities.  Many  pears  are 
shipped  from  California  to  the  east  in  shallow  boxes  made 
of  thin  lumber,  in  which  the  pears,  individually  wrapped  in 
tissue  paper,  are  closely  packed,  and  the  box  is  given  no 
ventilation.  When  packed  in  kegs  or  barrels,  the  same 
rules  are  observed  as  in  packing  apples,  except  that  pears 
should  be  pressed  less  hard.  Pears  are  generally  "faced" 
with  the  calyx  end  down  (06).  Pears  should  always  be 
packed  sufficienth-  immature  so  that  they  may  arrive  at 
their  destination  before  softening. 

<r9.  Insects  and  diseases  affecting  the  pear.  The  pear  is 
harassed  by  numerous  parasites,  but  except  those  men- 
tioned as  common  to  the  pome  fruits  (49-63),  only  a  few 
are  sufficiently  destructive  to  occasion  special  anxiety. 

80.  The  pear-tree  psylla  {Fsylla  pyri)  punctures  the 
young  twigs  near  the  axils  of  the  leaves  in  spring,  causing 
a  copious  exudation  of  sap  that  is  often  so  abundant  as  to 
drop  upon  the  foliage  below,  and  sometimes  to  run  down 
the  branches  to  the  ground.  In  severe  attacks,  almost  all 
of  the  foliage  will  be  affected,  and  the  tree  loses  a  consider- 


72 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 


able  part  of  its  leaves.  The  insect  is  so  minute  as  to  be 
scarcely  visible  without  a  magnifying  glass.  Flies  and  ants 
gather  about  in  large  numbers  to  sip  the  sweet  sap  and  are 
often  mistaken  for  the  cause  of  the  mischief. 

Preventive  measures.  Spraying  the  trees  with  kerosene 
emulsion  on  the  first  appearance  of  the  trouble  generally 
prevents  serious  damage. 

81.  The  pear-tree  Slu§:  {Selcmdriacerasi)  is  a  soft,  slimy, 
blackish  or  olive-brown,  snail-like  insect  (Fig.  22)  that  often 
attacks  the  foliage  of  the  pear  in  summer, 
and  sometimes  almost  defoliates  the  trees 
before  it  is  discovered.  The  insect  has  two 
broods,  the  first  of  which  commonly  ap- 
pears about  the  middle  of  June. 

Preventive  measures.  As  this  insect  feeds 
upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves,  it  is 
readily  destroyed  by  spraying  with  kero- 
sene emulsion,  or  with  water  containing 
fresh  hellebore  powder  at  the  rate  of  a 
heaping  teaspoonful  to  three  gallons.  Trees 
not  bearing  fruit  may  be  sprayed  with 
water  containing  Paris  green  or  London 
purple.    Air-slacked  lime  dusted  over  the  Fia.22.' 

foliage  is  also  said  to  be  effectual. 

The  fire  blight  has  been  considered  in  treating  the  apple 
(62).  The  only  special  precaution  to  be  observed  in  the 
case  of  the  pear  is  to  prevent  the  growth  of  fruit  spurs  on 
the  larger  branches  of  the  tree.  The  disease  more  often 
affects  the  fruit  spurs  of  the  pear  than  of  other  fruits, 
hence  preventing  the  growth  of  these  on  the  main  branches 
tends  to  restrict  the  disease  to  the  smaller  branches,  which 
may  be  cut  off  with  less  damage  to  the  tree. 

•  Pear-tree  slug.    (After  Saunders.) 


The  Quince.  73 

82.  The  leaf  blight  [Entomosporium  macidatum)  is  a 
fungous  disease  that  is  ofteu  very  destructive  to  young 
pear  seedlings.  Its  lirst  indication  is  the  dotting  of  the 
foliage  with  reddish-brown  spots,  followed  by  the  brown- 
ing and  falling  of  the  leaves  during  summer,  which  causes 
premature  cessation  of  growth,  and  in  severe  cases  totally 
destroys  the  seedlings.  In  older  trees  the  disease  may  also 
affect  the  stems  and  fruit. 

This  disease  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  fire 
blight  (62). 

Preventive  measures.  The  Bordeaux  mixture,  applied  as 
soon  as  the  first  leaves  have  expanded,  and  at  intervals  of 
2  to  4  weeks  until  August  1st,  usually  prevents  this  dis- 
ease. The  treatments  should  be  most  frequent  in  damp 
weather. 

C  —  THE   QUIXCE 

83.  The  quince  is  an  irregular-growing,  shallow-rooted 
tree  or  large  shrub,  attaining  a  height  of  10  or  12  feet  at 
maturity.  The  fruit,  which  is  firm  and  acid,  and  resem- 
bles that  of  the  pear  in  size  and  shape,  is  chiefly  used  for 
preserves,  marmalade,  jelly,  sauce,  and  for  flavoring  sauces 
made  from  other  fruits.  The  varieties,  which  are  not  nu- 
merous, mostly  mature  their  fruit  in  autumn,  and  the  fruit 
keeps  until  cold  weather. 

While  the  quince  is  not  an  important  fruit  commer- 
cially, quince  orchards  in  favorable  locations,  when  well 
cared  for,  have  generally  proved  profitable. 

84.  Cultural  range.  The  quince  is  less  resistant  to  cold 
than  the  apple  or  pear,  and  is  about  equally  subject  with 
the  pear  to  fire  blight  and  leaf  blight  (62,  82).  Its  cultural 
range  is  therefore  narrower  than  that  of  the  pear.  It  can- 
not endure  the  winters  of  the  northern  Mississippi  Valley, 


74  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

and  is  commerciall}^  grown  in  Canada  only  in  tlie  most 
favored  districts. 

85.  Propagation.  Tlie  quince  is  commonly  propagated 
by  layers  or  cuttings.'  When  propagated  as  stocks  on 
which  to  work  the  pear,  mound-layering  is  usually  practiced^ 
but  when  grown  for  fruit  trees,  young  shoots  are  com- 
monly bent  down  in  spring  and  buried,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  buds  at  the  extremity.  When  these  have  well 
started,  all  are  cut  away  but  the  best  shoot,  which  is  trained 
upright  to  a  stake.  In  two  or  three  years  the  tree  may  be 
removed  for  planting  in  its  permanent  place. 

The  quince  is  also  extensively  propagated  by  cuttings  of 
the  young  wood,  which  may  be  made  and  planted  in  autumn. 
It  is  also  propagated  by  root  cuttings,  by  budding  upon 
seedlings  of  the  Angers  quince,  and  by  root  grafting  upon 
apple  seedlings.  In  the  latter  case  the  apple  root  is  often 
removed  when  the  tree  is  transplanted  in  the  nursery  or  to 
the  orchard. 

86.  Fruiting:  habit.  The  flowers  of  the  quince  are  pro- 
duced on  short  branches,  that  grow  in  spring  from  small 
buds  terminating 
spurs  borne  on  wood 
two  years  old  or  older 
(Fig.  23).  The  flow- 
ers develop  to  a  less 
extent  the  season  be- 
fore their  expansion  *^ 

than     those   of   most      -p^^^  23.    Fruit  spur  of  quince.    (Adapted  from 
other  tree  fruits.    The    Bailey's  "Pruning  Book.") 

trees  begin  fruiting  about  2  years  after  planting  and  reach 
full  bearing  in  10  or  12  years. 

>  Detailed  directions  for  propagating  plants  from  layers  and  cuttings  are  given 
in  "Principles  of  Plant  Culture." 


The  Quince.  75 

87.  Soil  and  culture  methods.  The  quince  appears  to 
thrive  best  ou  a  heavy,  retentive  clay  loam,  well-drained. 
On  lighter  soils  the  trees  are  rarely  long-lived.  The  trees 
are  commonly  planted  about  15  feet  apart  each  way,  three- 
year-old  trees  being  preferred  for  planting.  The  soil  of  the 
quince  orchard  should  not  be  deeply  plowed  and  should 
always  be  protected  in  winter  with  a  cover  crop.  The  vig- 
orous shoots  of  bearing  trees  may  be  profitably  cut  back 
more  or  less  each  winter  or  early  spring  to  promote  the  de- 
velopment of  fruit  spurs. 

88.  Insect  enemies.  The  fruit  of  the  quince  is  injured 
by  a  curculio  {Conotrachelus  cratcegi  —  Fig.  2i)  of  which 

the  larva  develops  within  the  fruit. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  young  fruit 

during  June,  and  the  beetle  may  be 

caught  and  destroyed  in  the  manner 

prescribed  for  the  plum  curculio  (99). 

The  round-headed  apple-tree  borer 

(57)  attacks  the  trunk  and  the  pear- 

FiG.  24.    Quince  curculio,  ^^^^  slug  (SI)  attacks  the  foliage. 

back  and  side  view.     Much        89.   FUUgOUS    diSCaSeS.      The  fire 

enlarged.    (After   Saunders.)    ^^.^.^^j.   ^^^^   ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^g^)   at- 

tack  the  foliage  of  the  quince  and  are  its  most  serious 
fungous  enemies.  A  rust  [Eoestelia  aurantiaca)  sometimes 
blotches  the  fruit  and  may  envelop  it  in  an  orange-colored, 
fringe-like  growth.  Bordeaux  mixture,  used  as  directed 
for  leaf  blight,  generally  prevents  this  disease. 

Section  3. —  The  Stone  or  Drupe  Fruits. 

90.  The  principal  cultivated  stone  fruits  are  the  plum, 

cherry,  peach,  apricot  and  nectarine.     Of  these  the  plum 

and  cherry  include  several  different  botanical  species.     All 

are  small  trees  or  shrubs  that  exude  more  or  less  gum  from 


76  Lessons  in  Fruit  Orowing. 

wounds,  and  flower  more  or  less  on  wood  of  the  previous 
season's  growth.  The  flower  buds  are  generally  lateral, 
the  flowers  forming  the  first  year  of  their  life.  The  fruit 
is  a  tender-fleshed,  juicy,  often  highly-flavored  drupe,'  and 
generally  keeps  but  a  short  time  after  maturity.  The  trees 
are  naturally  more  fruitful  than  the  pome  fruits  (41). 

91.  The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  stone  fruits  is  somewhat 
lighter,  warmer  and  drier  than  that  which  best  suits  the 
pome  fruits,  and  it  should  be  abundantly  fertile  to  give  best 
results.  Certain  species  of  the  plum  succeed  admirably  on 
a  moist,  well-drained  clay  loam. 

92.  Cultivation.  The  stone  fruits  are  not  subject  to  the 
fire  blight,  and  therefore  respond  more  favorably  to  high 
cultivation  than  the  pome  fruits.  Seeding  the  ground  about 
the  trees  to  grass,  or  cropping  it  for  the  crop's  sake,  is  less 
admissible  than  with  the  pome  fruits.  Cultivation  early  in 
the  season,  with  a  cover  crop  sown  about  midsummer,  should 
be  the  rule.  In  orchards  too  closely  planted  to  permit  cul- 
tivation, the  ground  has  sometimes  been  mulched  with  ex- 
cellent results. 

93.  Picking  and  packing.  The  stone  fruits  do  not  carry 
well  if  allowed  to  ripen  on  the 
tree,  but  fortunately  they  ac- 
quire most  of  their  quality  if 
picked  a  little  hard.  They 
should  not  be  picked  until  full 
grown,  and  as  a  rule,  not  earlier 
than  is  necessary  to  insure  that     fig.  25.  ciimax  fruit  basket.  This 

they    reach    their     destination    is  also  made  with  a  raised,  slatted 
•'  cover. 

before  becoming  soft.     Plums 

and  cherries  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  picked  until  fully 

colored. 

*  A  drupe  is  a  fleshy  fruit  containing  a  single  seed  with  a  bony  covering.    The 
seed  with  its  covering  is  called  the  pit  or  "  stone." 


The  Plum.  77 

The  stone  fruits  are  commonly  packed  in  the  Climax 
basket  (Fig.  25),  in  the  half-bushel  market  basket,  or  occa- 
sionally in  larger  baskets.  Early  and  especially  choice 
varieties  of  the  plum  and  cherry  are  sometimes  marketed 
in  berry  boxes. 

A — THE   PLUM 

94.  The  cultivated  plums  of  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada include  the  following  species: 

1st.  The  European  plum  and  its  American  seedlings 
(Prunus  domestica).  The  more  common  blue  and  yellow 
plums  of  the  markets  and  the  dried  prunes  are  of  this  spe- 
cies. It  is  the  choicest  dessert  plum.  The  tree  bears  large, 
firm,  thick,  wrinkled,  coarsely-toothed  leaves  which  are 
mostly  downy  beneath;  the  shoots  are  usually  downy,  and 
the  flowers  are  large,  as  compared  with  those  of  other  spe- 
cies. The  fruit  is  mostly  globular-pointed  or  oblong,  with  a 
large  and  slightly  roughened  or  pitted  stone.  This  species 
was  introduced  into  America  by  the  early  settlers  and  is 
more  extensively  Cultivated  than  any  other.  In  the  north- 
ern Mississippi  valley  its  flower  buds  are  not  hardy,  and  its 
trunk  is  subject  to  sun-scald. 

2nd.  The  Japanese  plum  and  its  American  seedlings 
(Prunus  tnflora).  This  species  was  widely  disseminated 
in  North  America  from  1890  to  1900,  and  the  showy,  round- 
ish, pointed,  firm-fleshed,  small-stoned,  red,  yellow  or  pur- 
ple fruit  is  becoming  common  in  our  markets.  The  flowers 
are  small,  clustered,  and  open  earlier  than  those  of  most 
other  species.  The  tree  is  of  rapid  growth  with  usually 
long,  straight,  spreading  branches,  and  smooth,  obovate, 
finely-toothed,  prominently-pointed  leaves.  The  fruit  is 
generally  inferior  in  quality,  but  the  excellence  of  a  few 
varieties  gives  promise  of  great  improvement  for  the  spe- 


*T8  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

cies.  Its  flower  buds  are  not  hardier  than  those  of  the 
European  plum,  and  its  trunk  is  more  subject  to  sun-scald. 
The  early  opening  of  its  flowers  renders  it  comparatively 
unfruitful  in  many  localities  where  its  flower  buds  can  en- 
dure the  winter, 

3d.  The  northern  ivilcl  plum  and  its  cultivated  seedlings 
{Primus  Americana)  is  native  along  streams  and  in  copses 
from  west  New  England  to  Colorado  and  Texas.  TJie  tree 
is  spreading,  small  and  often  thorny;  the  leaves  are  large, 
obovate,  abruptly  pointed,  coarsely  toothed,  conspicuously 
veined  and  are  never  glossy.  The  fruit  is  yellow,  more  or  less 
overlaid  with  dull  red  or  purple,  with  a  tough  and  glaucous 
skin,  firm  or  crisp,  sweet  flesh  and  a  distinctly  margined 
stone.  A  division  of  this  species  known  as  ihe  Nigra  group 
(Waugh)  is  distinguished  by  its  large  leaves  and  large,  often 
early-expanding  flowers,  oblong,  oval,  often  strongly-flat- 
tened fruit  with  a  large  and  much  compressed  stone. 

This  species  is  now  considerably  grown  for  fruit  in  the 
northern  Mississippi  valley,  where  some  extensive  orchards 
of  it  exist.  The  fruit  is  becoming  popular  in  the  north- 
western markets,  and  is  mainly  used  for  culinary  purposes. 
The  trees  or  flower  buds  are  rarely  damaged  by  cold  in 
winter.  The  pistils  are  often  destroyed  by  a  return  of  cold 
weather  after  a  premature  warm  period  in  spring,  though 
rarely  to  an  extent  to  destroy  the  crop.  Improved  varie- 
ties of  this  species  are  rapidly  appearing,  the  finest  of  which 
already  rival  in  favor  those  of  the  European  and  Japanese 
plums.  The  harshness  of  the  skin  and  stone,  so  noticeable 
in  the  wild  fruit,  disappear  under  good  culture. 

4th.  The  Wild-Goose  jplum  and  allied  forms  {Prunus  hor- 
tulana)  is  a  strong,  spreading,  rapid-growing  tree  with 
smooth,  straight  twigs  and  a  peach-like  habit,  narrow, 
thin,  smooth,  usually  shining,  closely-toothed  leaves,  and 


The  Plum.  79 

roundish,  bright-red  or  yellow,  juicy,  thin-skinned  fruit, 
with  a  strongly  clinging,  thick,  small,  pointed  stone.  A 
division  known  as  the  Miner  group  (Bailey)  is  distin- 
guished by  duller,  thicker,  wider,  more  veiny  leaves  and 
by  a  smoother  stone. 

This  species,  which  is  wild  in  parts  of  the  Mississippi 
valley,  is  regarded  by  some  botanists  as  a  hybrid  between 
Prunus  Americana  and  Primus  Chicasa.  The  fruit  is  less 
crisp  and  sweet  than  that  of  Prunus  Americana,  which, 
with  its  more  clinging  stone,  makes  it  less  desirable  for  des- 
sert use;  the  flower  buds  are  also  less  hardy,  which  renders 
the  species  unproductive  in  the  northern  Mississippi  valley. 

5th.  The  Chickasaw  plum  (Primus  Chicasa  or  P.  ongus- 
tifolia)  is  a  slender  tree,  with  smdll,  nar|i-ow,  shining, 
trough-like  leaves,  and  small,  gloss}^  red  or  fellow,  dotted 
fruits,  with  thin  skin  and  soft,  juicy  flesh  closely  clinging- 
to  the  small,  broad,  roughish  stone.  It  is  vfWA  from  Dela- 
ware, south  and  west  to  east  Kansas  and  Texas.  The 
flower  buds  are  often  destroyed  in  winter  in  the  northern 
Mississippi  valley. 

The  fruit  of  this  species  is  decidedly  smaller  and  less 
highly  flavored  than  that  oi  Prunus  Americana,  and  is  suit- 
able only  for  culinary  uses,  for  which  it  is  especially  desir- 
able. 

The  trees  of  the  different  species  of  plum  are  hardy 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Southern  Canada,  when 
their  trunks  are  prevented  from  sun-scald. 

Hybrid  plums.  A  number  of  hybrids  have  been  artifi- 
cially produced  between  certain  of  the  above  species,  espe- 
cially between  the  Japanese  plum  and  others.  The  European 
plum  apparently  resists  hybridization  more  than  the  other 
species.    As  the  hybrids  increase  in  number,  it  will  doubt- 


80 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 


less  become  more  and  more  difficult  to  refer  tne  varieties 
to  their  proper  species. 

95.  Fruiting:  habit.  Tlie  plums  fruit  mostly  on  spurs, 
but  as  the  flower  buds  are  mainly  lateral,  the  spurs  do  not 
branch  as  in  the  pome  fruits,  but  continue  to  grow  from 
their  terminal  bud,  unless  this  also  flowers  or  dies  from  lack 
of  light,  when  the  spur  perishes,  becoming  a  thorn-like 
branch.  On  the  young  shoots,  a  flower  bud  often  forms  on 
either  side  of  the  buds  in  the  axil  of  a  leaf,  but  flowers  from 
these  do  not  often  form  fruits.  The  spur-buds  commonly 
flower  at  the  beginning  of  their  second  year  (Fi 

The  trees  usually  commence  bear- 
ing at  two  to  three  years  after  plant- 
ing in  the  on^hard. 

9(i,  Pruning:.  The  plum  requires 
little  pruning  except  such  as  is  needed 
foy  symmetry  and  to  maintain  a  free, 
open,  hearl.  The  trees  of  some  varie- 
ties incline  to  split  down,  hence  the 
new  growth  should  be  kept  well  cut 
back,  and  forks  in  the  stem  should 
be  carefully  avoided.  Many  varieties 
of  Pruniis  Americana  tend  to  produce 
very  dense  heads,  which  should  be 
thinned  out  by  removing  the  smaller 
branches.  This  tends  to  prevent  over- 
bearing, and  to  increase  the  size  of 
the  fruit. 

97.  Picking:  plums 
European  class  should  be  picked  with 
the  stems,  but  the  stems  of  most  native  varieties  detach  as 
the  fruit  ripens.    Plums  should  be  handled  as  little  as  pos- 


Fia.  26.    Fruiting  branch 
Plums   of  the  of  European  pi um.  (Adapted 
from  Bailey's  Pruning  Book.) 


The  Plum. 


81 


sible  to  avoid  removing  the  delicate  bloom  that  gives  an 
appearance  of  freshness. 

Plums  do  not  often  ripen  uniformly  enough  to  permit 
all  to  be  picked  from  the  tree  at  one  i)icking,  and  the  fruit 
generally  becomes  too  ripe  for  marketing  if  allowed  to  drop. 
It  is  usually  necessary  to  pick  over  the  trees  two  or  more 
times,  the  color  of  the  fruit  indicating  which  ones  are  to 
be  picked. 

98.  Parasitic  enemies.  The  chief  parasitic  enemies  of 
the  plum  are  the  plum  curculio,  plum  gouger  and  aphidae 
(53)  among  insects,  and  the  "fruit  rot,"  black  knot, 
and  "  plum  pockets  "  or  "  bladder  plums  "  among  fungi. 
These  are  treated  in  order. 

99.  The  plum  curculio  {Conotmchelus  nenuphar)  (Fig. 
27  c.)  is  the  chief  insect  enemy  of  the  plum  and  cherry.    It 

is  native  to  America  and  for- 
merly bred  in  the  wild  plums. 
On  the  introduction  of  the 
European  plum,  it  attacked 
this  fruit  so  vigorously,  until 
preventive  measures  were  dis- 
^^^^        I  isSHS'^^     covered,  as  to  threaten  its  ex- 
jgfljl^^^         vIl^iF     termination  from  culture. 
^^J^^CT         n?^^  The    perfect    insect    is    a 

rough,   grayish   or  blackish 

Fig.  27.    Showing  plum  curculio,  and  jjeetle,  about   OUe-fiftll    of  an 

stung    fruit;    o.   larva;   6,    chiysalis;  ^      j^  ^^^        The  females  begin 
c,  beetle;     d,    stung    plum,    showing  =_  _  ° 

crescent^shaped   mark.      Natural   size  to  lay  their  eggS  in  the  green 

indicated  by  short  Uaes.    (After  Saun-  £^,^j-^.  g^^^  ^^i^^^.  ^\^q  petals  fall. 

^^^^  The  length  of  the  egg-laying 

period  is  from  two  to  five  weeks,  and  depends  much  upon 
the  weather,  it  being  prolonged  in  cold  and  wet  springs. 


82  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

In  the  plum  and  some  other  fruits,  the  female  exposes  lier 
■work  by  a  crescent-shaped  mark  (d)  about  the  point  of 
Qgg  deposit.  On  the  hatching  of  the  ^^g.,  the  larva  feeds 
upon  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  until  it  attains  its  growth,  when 
it  leaves  the  fruit  and  descends  into  the  ground  4  to  6 
inches  for  transformation.  More  or  less  gum  generally 
exudes  from  the  wounds  made  in  the  egg-laying,  and  in 
the  plum,  the  fruit  usually  drops  before  maturity;  but  in 
cold  and  backward  springs  the  egg-laying  may  be  so  far 
retarded  that  the  larvae  are  found  in  the  ripe  fruit.  The 
plum  curculio  is  single  brooded,  and  the  beetle  passes  the 
winter  under'the  loose  bark  of  trees  or  in  similar  places. 

Preventive  measures.  Early  in  the  season  the  beetle 
feeds  somewhat  on  the  foliage,  and  hence  may  be  destroyed 
to  a  slight  extent  by  spraying  the  tree  with  water  contain- 
ing an  arsenite,  but  the  number  of  beetles  that  may  be  thus 
destroyed  is  not  always  sufficient  to  repay  spraying  for  this 
purpose  alone.  The  so  called  "jarring  process"  is  more 
effectual.  In  this,  advantage  is  taken  of  the  stiffness  in 
the  beetles  caused  by  cold,  to  jar  them  from  the  tree  upon 
sheet-covered  frames,  where  they  may  be  killed.  The  trees 
are  gone  over,  usually  in  the  earl}''  morning,  with  the  cur- 
culio catcher  (Fig.  28),  which  is  run  beneath  the  tree  so  that 
the  trunk  is  near  the 
center  of  the  sheet. 
A  stub,  formed  by 
sawing  off  a  small 
branch  of  the  tree,  is 

then    struck    two    or  Fig.  sT  Curciilio  catcher. 

three  vigorous  blows 

with  a  cushion-covered  mallet,  when  the  curculios,  with 

other  insects,  drop  on  the  sheet,  whence  they  are  swept  into 


The  Plum.  83 

a  box  beneath  the  center  of  the  sheet  to  be  later  destroyed 
by  kerosene.  In  case  of  the  plum,  all  fruits  that  fall  as  the 
result  of  infection  by  larvae  should  also  be  promptly  gath- 
ered and  destroyed  by  burning  or  otherwise. 

100.  The  plum  gouger  {Coccotorus  scutellaris)  is  some- 
times as  destructive  to  the  native  plums  as  the  curculio, 
for  which  it  is  often  mistaken.  It  is  much  larger  than  the 
latter  and  appears  in  spring  at  about  the  same  time.  Un- 
like the  curculio,  the  female  does  not  mark  her  place  of 
eg,g  deposit  with  a  crescent-shaped  mark,  and  the  larva 
feeds  on  the  kernel  of  the  pit.  Fortunately  the  plum 
gouger  is  destroyed  by  the  treatment  recommended  for  the 
plum  curculio  (99). 

The  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer  (58)  often  injures  the 
trunk  of  the  plum  when  the  bark  has  been  damaged  by 
sun-scald  or  otherwise. 

101.  The  fruit  rot.  Certain  varieties  of  nearly  all  of 
the  stone  fruits  are  subject  to  disastrous  rotting  on  the 
trees  at  the  time  of  maturit}',  especially  if  the  weather 
at  this  season  is  warm  and  wet.  The  rotting  is  the  direct 
result  of  a  fungous  disease  and  may  be  in  part  prevented. 
The  fungus  {Monilia  friictigena)  attacks  the  flowers, 
leaves,  and  fruit  spurs,  as  well  as  the  fruits.  It  makes  its 
appearance  on  the  flowers  about  the  time  the  petals  fall, 
and  ma}'  proceed  from  the  flower  to  its  stem,  destroying 
that  also.  The  dead  flowers  usuall}-^  remain  on  the  tree  3 
or  4  weeks,  when,  if  the  weather  is  wet,  they  are  distrib- 
uted to  other  parts  of  the  tree,  to  which  they  spread  the 
disease.  If  the  weather  at  the  time  of  fruit  maturity  should 
be  warm  and  rainy,  the  fungus  in  the  fruit  may  progress 
with  astonishing  rapidity,  causing  total  destruction  of  a 
large  crop.  The  decayed  fruits,  if  undisturbed,  may  re- 
main on  the  tree  until  the  following  spring. 


84  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

Preventive  measures.  The  disease  gains  entrance  to 
the  flowers  through  spores  that  live  from  year  to  year. 
Since  every  fruit  destroyed  by  the  fungus  matures  millions 
of  spores,  every  decayed  fruit  that  is  permitted  to  hang  on 
the  tree  until  the  following  spring  is  a  source  of  infection 
to  the  next  crop.  As  soon  as  the  ripe  fruits  that  escape 
the  rot  have  been  gathered,  all  decayed  ones,  whether  on 
the  tree  or  on  the  ground,  should  be  collected  and  destroyed 
by  burning  or  burying.  It  is  wise,  also,  to  rake  up  and 
burn  the  fallen  leaves  in  autumn,  and  thus  destroy  all  ad- 
herent spores  of  the  fungus.  Spraying  the  trees  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture  in  early  spring,  taking  care  to  thoroughly 
wet  the  trunk  and  branches  will  tend  to  prevent  the  ger- 
mination of  spores  on  the  tree,  and  thus  lessen  the  chances 
of  infection  of  the  flowers.  Spraying  the  fruit  at  the  ap- 
proach of  the  ripening  period  with  a  solution  of  potassium 
sulfide,  at  the  rate  of  one-half  ounce  to  a  gallon  of  water, 
also  tends  to  prevent  the  disease.  Early  picking  of  the 
fruit,  provided  it  is  picked  quite  dry,  usually  prevents  seri- 
ous damage  from  rotting. 

Planting  and  pruning  the  trees  with  reference  to  secur- 
ing abundant  circulation  of  air  among  the  leaves  and  fruit, 
and  thinning  the  fruits  so  that  no  two  specimens  hang  in 
contact,  also  tends  to  reduce  the  rot. 

102.  The  black  knot  of  the  plum  and  cherry  {Plow- 
rightia  [Sph(£na\  viorbosa)is  a  fungous  disease  that  attacks 
the  younger  branches,  causing  abnormal,  dark-colored 
swellings  of  the  wood,  and  sooner  or  later  destroying  the 
affected  parts. 

Preventive  measures.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
has  been  found  to  reduce  the  number  of  affected  branches, 
but  where  the  disease  has  secured  a  foothold,  the  branches 
should  be  promptly  cut  off  and  burned. 


The  Plum.  85 

103.  Plum  pockets  or  bladder  plums.  The  plums  native 
to  America  are  often  attacked  by  a  fungus  {Exoascus  [Ta- 
phrina]  Fruni),  that  causes  the  young  fruits  to  swell  up  in  a 
conspicuous  and  abnormal  manner,  assuming  at  first  a  gray 
color  which  later  changes  to  brown  or  black.  Affected  fruits 
are  destroyed  and  finally  fall.  The  disease  also  affects  the 
leaves  and  young  stems,  causing  similar  distortions.  It 
does  not,  however,  appear  to  spread  much  from  tree  to  tree, 
and  is  mostly  confined  to  a  few  varieties. 

Preventive  measures.  Watch  should  be  kept  for  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  disease  in  spring  and  early  summer,  and  all 
affected  fruits  and  leaves  should  be  destroyed.  Spraying 
trees  inclined  to  the  disease  with  Bordeaux  mixture  as  soon 
as  the  foliage  appears  in  spring  will  doubtless  tend  to  pre- 
vent the  attack.  Varieties  found  specially  susceptible  to 
the  disease  should  be  discarded. 

The  foliage  of  the  plum  is  also  sometimes  injured  by  the 
shot-hole  fungus  (130). 

104.  Propagation  of  the  plum.  Various  stocks  are  used 
in  propagating  the  plum.  In  localities  where  the  Domes- 
tica  species  succeeds,  the  Myrobolan  stock  {Primus  myro- 
holana)  is  much  used  and  is  generally  satisfactory  except  on 
light  or  otherwise  unfavorable  soils. 

Seedlings  of  Primus  angustifolia  are  much  used  in  the 
southern  states,  but  have  the  objection  of  suckering  from 
the  roots.  The  Marianna  plum,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
of  the  Myrobolan  class,  and  which  grows  readily  from  cut- 
tings in  the  south,  is  also  used  to  some  extent.  The  most 
satisfactory  stock  for  the  plum,  at  least  in  the  northern 
states,  is  undoubtedly  seedlings  of  the  Americana  plum. 
The  peach  was  at  one  time  considerably  used  as  a  stock  for 
the  plum,  but  has  now  been  nearly  abandoned. 


86  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

Growing  seedlings.  Pits  for  producing  stocks  should  be 
gathered  from  vigorous,  healthy  plum  trees.  They  should 
be  removed  from  the  pulp  and  stratified  in  sand,  or  the 
fruits  may  be  mashed  in  plenty  of  sand,  and  the  sand  con- 
taining the  pits  should  be  buried  a  few  inches  deep  in  the 
soil,  in  a  Avell-drained  place,  until  early  the  following  spring, 
when  the  pits  should  be  planted  not  over  three-fourths  inch 
deep,  3  or  4  inches  apart,  in  rows  3^  or  4  feet  apart. 

To  prevent  washing-out  of  the  pits,  the  planted  rows 
may  be  covered  with  narrow  boards  until  the  young  plants 
appear,  when  the  boards  should  be  promptly  removed. 
After  the  plants  have  started,  the  soil  about  them  and  be- 
tween the  rows  should  be  well  cultivated  throughout  the 
season. 

Grafting.  The  young  trees  should  be  large  enough  for 
budding  by  the  latter  part  of  summer.  If  the  seedlings  are 
intended  for  crown-grafting,  cions  may  be  cut  the  follow- 
ing spring,  after  frost  has  left  the  ground,  but  before 
growth  has  started  in  the  stocks  or  cions,  and  inserted  at 
once  in  the  crown  of  the  seedling.  Root-grafting  the  plum 
is  not  generally  satisfactory.  The  trees  may  be  top-grafted 
with  fair  success,  as  described  for  crown-grafting,  or  with 
autumn-cut  cions,  tightly  packed  in  dry  leaves  and  kept 
over  winter  in  a  cool  cellar. 

Propagation  from  root  cuttings.  The  plum  is  readily 
propagated  from  root  cuttings  taken  from  trees  that  are 
growing  "  on  their  own  roots,"  i.  e.,  that  have  not  been 
grafted.  The  shallow  roots  may  be  cut  into  three-inch 
pieces  in  autumn  and  packed  in  boxes  with  alternate  lay- 
ers of  moist  sand,  and  the  boxes  may  be  stored  over  winter 
in  a  cool  cellar.  As  early  in  spring  as  the  soil  can  be 
worked,  the  cuttings  are  planted  upright,  with  their  dis- 
tal end  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  below  the  surface. 


The  Cherry.  87 

105.  Soil  and  planting:.  The  best  soil  for  the  plum  is  a 
moderatelj-heavy  clay  loam,  though  some  varieties  succeed 
admirably  on  rather  light  soils.  A  suitable  distance  for 
planting  the  trees  is  20  to  25  feet  apart,  depending  some- 
what upon  the  vigor  of  the  variety. 

The  varieties  of  the  American  species  of  the  plum  are 
largely  impotent  with  their  own  pollen —  a  fact  that  greatly 
emphasizes  the  importance  of  mingling  the  varieties  in 
planting  (14). 

B— THE   CHERRY 

106.  The  cultivated  cherries  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  include  the  following  species: 

(a)  Prunus  avium,  the  bird  cherr}^  of  Europe,  the  sweet 
cherry  of  North  America,  or  the  English  cherry,  to 
which  the  classes  known  as  Mazzards,  Hearts,  Bigarreaus 
and  Dukes  belong,  is  characterized  by  the  usually  tall,  up- 
right growth  and  pyramidal  form  of  the  tree.  This  has 
large,  vigorous  and  straight  young  branches,  with  soft, 
coarsely-  or  doubly-toothed,  pointed  leaves,  which  are  usu- 
ally pubescent  beneath.  The  flowers  are  developed  at  the 
same  time  with  the  leaves,  and  the  usually  sweet  or  bitter 
fruit  is  round-ovoid  or  somewhat  heart-shaped  and  of  vari- 
ous colors.  The  cultural  range  of  this  species  is  rather 
limited  and  it  is  not  hardy  in  northern  United  States  nor 
in  Canada  except  in  favored  districts.  The  fruit  is  used 
for  dessert,  canning  and  pickling. 

(b)  Prunus  cerasus,  the  red,  sour,  or  pie  cherry,  which 
is  a  smaller  tree  than  the  above  and  includes  the  Ama- 
relle  and  Morello  classes,  has  small,  irregular  and  thickly- 
growing  branches,  with  obovate  lance-ovate,  serrate  leaves, 
rather  large  flowers  on  shortish  pedicels  that  somewhat 


88 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 


precede  the  leaves,  and  a  decidedl}'  acid, 
roundish,  coranionly  red  fruit.  This  spe- 
cies is  hardier  than  the  last,  and  is  grown 
with  some  success  in  the  colder  parts  of 
the  United  States.  Its  flower  buds  are, 
however,  often  destroyed  in  winter  in  the 
northern  Mississippi  Valley.  The  fruit  is 
chiefly  used  for  pies  and  canning. 

(c)  Prunus  Besseyii,  the  dwarf  or  sand 
cherry,  is  a  low  straggling  shrub  which 
has  recently  been  cultivated  in  an  amateur 
way.  Its  fruit  more  resembles  that  of  the 
sweet  than  the  sour  cherry,  and  its  vari- 
ability suggests  that  it  may  be  susceptible 
to  improvement. 

lOr.  Fruiting:  habit.  The  fruit  of  the 
cherry  is  mostly  borne  from  lateral  buds 
on  short  spurs  from  wood  of  the  preceding 
year  (Fig.  29),  i.  e.,  the  buds  that  form  in 
the  leaf  axils  of  the  young  shoots  grow  out 
into  short  branches  (spurs)  the  next  year, 
the  lateral  buds  on  these  spurs  forming 
flowers  that  expand  the  following  spring. 
These  spurs  may  persist  two  or  more  years 
by  growth  from  their  terminal  buds,  which 
seldom  flower,  but  they  commonly  perish 
in  a  3'ear  or  two  through  lack  of  light. 
Sometimes  the  lower  buds  on  the  young 
shoots  form  flowers  the  first  season. 

108.  Soil  for  the  cherry.  The  cherry 
thrives  best  on  a  dry,  sandy  or  gravelly 
loam.  It  is  especially  subject  to  damage 
from  over-wet  and  poorly-drained  soils. 


'  Fruiting  wood  of  sour  cheri-y.    F,  flower  buds;  L,  leaf  buds. 


The  Cherry.  89 

109.  Propagation.  Seedings  of  the  bird  cherry  are  much 
used  for  stocks,  both  for  its  own  species  and  for  the  varie- 
ties of  Pninus  cerasus. 

The  mahaleb  cherry  {Primus  mahaleh)  is  also  used  to 
produce  a  somewhat  dwarfed  cherry,  and  possesses  the  ad- 
vantage of  thriving  on  lieavy  cla}'  ground.  Neither  of 
these  stocks  is  entirely  successful  in  the  northern  Mississippi 
valley,  but  the  mahaleb  appears  to  be  the  hardier  of  the  two. 

The  seeds  may  be  treated  as  directed  for  the  plum  (104), 
but  must  be  planted  very  shallow,  and  unless  the  soil  is 
rather  light,  they  should  be  covered  with  leaf  mold,  fine 
■sand  or  thoroughly  decayed  manure,  to  avoid  the  formation 
■of  a  crust  over  them.  The  seedlings  are  not  often  large 
enough  to  bud  until  the  second  season.  They  should  com- 
monly be  taken  up  the  fall  after  sowing  and  buried  in  well- 
drained  soil,  or  stored  in  a  cool,  moist  cellar  until  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  Budding  the  cherry  is  practicable  only 
with  thrifty  stocks  and-  well-matured  buds.  The  most  fa- 
vorable time  for  budding  is  just  as  the  terminal  buds  on 
the  shoots  commence  to  form.  It  is  said  to  be  important 
to  cut  out  with  the  bud  a  section  of  wood  reaching  about 
■one-third  through  the  shoot. 

Grafting  the  cherri/  otherwise  than  by  budding  is  rarely 
successful  unless  performed  very  early  in  the  spring,  before 
frost  has  left  the  ground. 

110.  Pruning.  The  cherry  requires  only  sufficient  prun- 
ing to  form  a  symmetrical  head  and  to  admit  sunlight  to 
the  fruit  spurs.  In  countries  of  severe  winters  it  is  impor- 
tant to  head  the  trees  low  and  to  protect  the  trunk  against 
«un-scald. 

111.  Picking  and  marketing.  The  mature  fruit  of  the 
•cherry  is  much  subject  to  destruction  by  birds.  To  prevent 
this,  it  is   often  necessar}-  to  gather   the  fruit  before  it 


90  Lessons  iii  Fruit  Growing. 

softens.  The  trees  of  choice  varieties  are  sometimes  pro- 
tected against  birds  by  inclosing  them  with  cotton  netting. 

The  cherry  is  commonly  marketed  in  the  Climax  basket 
(Fig.  25),  in  half-bushel  market  baskets,  or  in  berry  boxe& 
(212).  Choice  varieties  are  often  shipped  from  the  Pacific 
states,  closely  packed  in  unventilated  boxes,  in  layers  sep- 
arated by  tissue  paper. 

Insects  and  diseases.  The  plum  curculio  (99)  and  the 
pear-tree  slug  (81)  are  the  most  serious  insect  enemies  of 
the  cherry.  The  fruit-rot  fungus  (101)  is  often  destructive. 
A  species  of  Exoascus  (103)  often  affects  the  sand  cherry. 

C — THE  PEACH 

112.  Tlie  peach  [Pninus  persica)  is  one  of  the  most  de- 
licious tree  fruits  of  temperate  climates. 

The  trees  are  more  tender  and  of  shorter  duration  than 
those  of  most  other  temperate  fruits.  Peach  orchards  often 
decline  after  bearing  2  or  3  good  crops,  but  under  more  fa- 
vorable conditions  they  continue  20  to  25  years.  Lack  of 
proper  culture  has  undoubtedly  ruined  many  American 
peach  orchards. 

The  cultivated  peaches  are  commonly  referred  to  a  single 
species,  but  at  least  two  botanical  varieties  are  recognized, 
viz.,  var.  Icevis  or  necturiana,  the  nectarine,  of  which  the  fruit 
is  smooth  and  usually  smaller  than  that  of  the  common 
peach  and  var.  platijcarpa^  the  fiat  or  Peen-to  peach,  of 
which  the  fruit  is  much  fiattened  endwise.  The  nectarine 
is  not  grown  commercially  in  North  America  except  to  a 
limited  extent  in  the  Pacific  states.  The  Peen-to  peach  is- 
grown  to  some  exte;it  in  Florida  and  on  the  Gulf  coast. 

113.  Cultural  range.  The  most  extensive  commercial 
peach-growing  regions  of  the  United  States  are  in  New 


The  Peach.  91 

Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Georgia,  Michigan,  Connecti- 
cut, New  York,  Colorado  and  the  Pacific  States.  The  crop 
is  quite  uncertain  throughout  most  of  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley and  Gulf  States  owing  to  the  sensitiveness  of  the  flower 
buds  to  warm  weather  in  winter,  which  causes  them  to 
swell  at  the  least  provocation.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances the  dormant  flower  buds  are  destroj'ed  by  a  tem- 
perature of  12  to  15  degrees  below  zero,  F.,  though  they 
have  sometimes  endured  a  considerably  lower  temperature. 
When  slightly  swelled  by  untimely  warm  weather,  they 
are  often  cut  off  at  a  temperature  of  only  5  or  6  degrees 
below  zero. 

A  careful  study  of  local  conditions  might  extend  the 
culture  of  the  peach  to  many  new  sections  of  small  extent. 

It  is  groAvn  commercially  to  some  extent  in  the  most 
favored  regions  of  Canada, 

114.  Fruiting  habit.  The  flower  buds  of  the  peach  are 
formed  rather  late  in  the  growing  season,  on  either  side  of 
the  buds,  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  on  the  young  shoots. 
Rarely,  the  axillary  bud  also  flowers.  The  flowers  are 
single  and  open  before  the  leaves  expand.  The  trees  often 
begin  fruiting  at  three  years  of  age. 

115.  Propagation.  The  peach  is  more  precocious  than 
most  other  tree  fruits.  Stocks  may  be  budded  the  same 
season  the  pits  are  planted,  and  in  the  southern  states, 
the  young  trees  may  be  planted  in  the  orchard  the  follow- 
ing spring.  In  the  north,  trees  grown  one  year  in  the 
nursery  after  budding  are  preferred. 

The  peach  is  commonly  budded  upon  its  own  seedlings. 
For  stocks,  only  the  seeds  of  hardy  and  late  varieties,  from 
orchards  not  subject  to  yellows  (121),  should  be  used.  The 
pits  may  be  kept  in  a  cellar  without  stratification  until 
winter,  when  they  should  be  stratified  and  exposed  to  freez- 


92  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

ing  and  thawing.  About  the  time  the  frost  leaves  the 
ground,  they  are  often  taken  up  and  cracked  by  hand, 
placing  them  on  the  end  of  a  wooden  block  and  strik- 
ing each  a  gentle  blow  on  the  edge  with  a  hammer.  The 
kernels  are  then  taken  out  of  the  shells  and  planted  at 
once,  1  or  2  inches  deep,  and  6  or  8  inches  apart,  in  rows 
sufficiently  separated  to  admit  of  horse  cultivation.  To 
secure  a  good  stand  of  plants,  the  kernels  are  often  sprouted 
before  planting  by  mixing  them  with  moist  sand  and  leaf 
mold  and  spreading  thinly  where  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays, 
the  sprouted  pits  being  planted  with  a  trowel.  If  the 
ground  cannot  be  prepared  early,  germination  may  be  re- 
tarded by  burying  the  uncracked  stones  a  foot  or  two  deep, 
until  wanted. 

Vacancies  in  the  rows  may  be  filled  from  a  seed  bed  when 
the  plants  are  very  young.  If  the  weather  is  dry,  the  ground 
should  be  watered. 

The  pits  may  be  planted  without  cracking  by  mixing  the 
fresh  stones  with  moist  saud  and  spreading  the  mixture  in 
a  layer  not  over  6  inches  thick  on  the  ground,  covering 
this  with  a  few  inches  of  partially  rotted  straw  or  coarse 
manure  to  prevent  drying.  This  covering  should  be  re- 
pioved  at  the  beginning  of  winter  to  favor  freezing  of  the 
pits.  In  spring,  a  large  portion  of  the  pits  will  be  found 
sprouting.  The  sprouted  pits  are  then  carefully  picked 
out  and  planted  at  once  as  above  directed.  In  a  few  days 
another  portion  will  be  found  sprouted  which  may  be 
picked  out  and  planted  as  before,  and  this  assorting  and 
planting  process  should  continue  as  long  as  the  pits  con- 
tinue to  sprout.  Those  which  do  not  sprout  the  first 
spring  may  be  covered  again  with  coarse  manure  and  ex- 
posed to  freezing  the  second  winter. 


The  Peach,  93 

If  the  soil  is  fertile  and  kept  well  cultivated,  the  trees  will 
usually  be  large  enough  in  the  northern  states  to  bud  by  the 
close  of  summer.  In  the  south,  they  may  be  budded  in  June. 
The  peach  is  sometimes  worked  upon  plum  stocks, 
though  the  practice  is  not  now  regarded  with  much  favor. 
The  plum  stock  slightly  enfeebles  the  growth  and  also 
lessens  damage  from  the  peach  borer  (121),  Dwarf  peach 
trees  are  produced  by  budding  on  the  Mirabelle,  a  diminu- 
tive variety  of  the  plum, 

116.  Soil.  The  peach  is  very  often  grown  on  sandy  soil, 
and  with  a  favorable  climate,  trees  thus  grown  succeed  and 
fruit  well  for  a  time;  but  they  do  not,  as  a  rule,  endure  so 
long  as  when  grown  on  fertile  and  well-drained  clay  loams. 
1 1 1.  Orchard  planting:.  The  peach  may  be  successfully 
transplanted  to  the  orchard  the  spring  after  the  insertion 
of  the  bud,  but  trees  two  years  old  from  the  bud, 
are  as  a  rule,  more  satisfactory  than  younger 
ones.  The  trees  may  be  planted  15  to  20  feet 
apart.  The  branches  are  commonly  cut  back  to 
within  one  bud  of  the  trunk,  and  the  top  is  con- 
*  siderably  shortened  (Fig.  30). 

118.  Pruning;.   Since  the  peach  bears  on  wood 
of  the  preceding  season's  growth,  that  pruning 
should  be  practiced  which  tends  to  develop  abun- 
dance of  new  wood  near  the  trunk.     Neglected 
trees   usually  develop    long,  slender   branches 
with  little  new  wood,  which  is  produced  at  the 
extremities,  and  the  fruit  on  these  tends  con- 
^'*-  ^-^      stantly  to  split  down  the  branches.     In  many 
orchards  the  new  growth  is  annually  cut  back  from  one-half 
to  one-third  its  length  in  early  spring,  and  the  center  of  the 

>  Young  peach  tree  pruned,  ready  for  planting  in  orchard,    (From  Bailey'a 
"Pruning  Book.") 


u 


Wessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 


tree  is  kept  opea  by  cutting  back  2  or  3  season's  growth  if 
need  be  (Pigs.  31  and  32).  The  cutting  back  of  the  annual 
growth  is  less  essential  when  the  peach  is  grown  on  light 
than  on  heavy  soils. 


Fig.  31.  Young  orchard  peach  tree  before 
pruning.  (From  Bailey's  "  Pruning  Book.") 


Fig.  32.    The  same  tree  as  Fig. 
after  pruning. 


119.  Picking:  and  packing:.  Peaches  should  not  be 
picked,  as  a  rule,  until  they  are  full-grown  and  have  begun 
to  assume  their  mature  color,  as  they  do  not  often  color 
perfectly  after  picking.  "  It  is  very  difficult  to  describe 
that  period  of  maturity  when  a  peach  is  ready  for  picking. 
An  experienced  picker  will  take  the  fruit  softly  in  his  hands 
and  press  the  ball  of  his  thumb  very  lightly  upon  the  side, 
and  if  the  fruit  has  a  somewhat  springy  feeling,  it  is  ready 
to  take  off  the  tree."  » 

Peaches  are  often  marketed  in  round-topped  baskets  with 


'  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,  Bailey,  383. 


The  Peach. 


95 


Peach  basket. 


•a  hexagonal  base  (Fig.  33).  To  enable  the  picker  to  use 
both  hands,  one  of  these  baskets  may  be  slipped  into  a  ring 
strapped  about  the  waist.  The  basket, 
when  filled,  is  replaced  by  an  empty  one 
to  avoid  pouring  the  fruit  from  one 
basket  to  another. 

120.  Insects  and  diseases.   The  most 
harmful  insects  are  the  plum  curculio 
(99)  and  the  peach-tree  borer.     Among 
diseases,  the  yellows,  rosette,  leaf  curl, 
*'  little  peach  "  and  fruit-rot  (101)  are  most  serious. 

121.  The  peach-tree  borer  {Aegeria  excitiosa).  The 
female  of  this  insect  lays  her  eggs  on  the  bark  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  from  the  latter  part  of  May  until  the 
end  of  August,  the  time  depending  much  upon  the  locality. 
The  larva  penetrates  the  bark  and  sap  wood  of  the  root, 
causing  a  copious  exudation  of  gum  about  the  base  of  the 
tree,  which  reveals  the  presence  of  the  insect. 

Preventive  measures.  The  larvae  may  be  cut  out  with  a 
knife  late  in  the  autumn  or  early  in  spring  by  removing 
sufficient  earth  about  the  base  of  the  tree.  After  this  the 
tree  may  be  banked  up  with  earth  to  the  height  of  a  foot 
or  more  late  in  the  spring,  or  toward  mid-summer  in  the 
northern  states.  The  mound  should  be  leveled  off  in  Sep- 
tember, after  egg  laying  has  ceased.  Protecting  the  trunk 
with  straw,  tied  upright  about  it  and  extending  a  few  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  has  also  been  recommended. 

122.  The  yellows  is  the  most  dreaded  disease  of  the 
peach.  It  has  destroyed  many  peach  orchards  and  almost 
annihilated  peach  culture  in  some  localities.  Its  infallible 
indications  are  premature  ripening  of  the  fruit,  accom- 
panied by  small,  bright-red  spots  upon  the  skin,  and  pur- 


96  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

pie  discoloration,  with  insipid  flavor  of  the  flesh.  The  fol- 
lowing season,  numerous  slender  shoots  often  appear  on 
the  larger  branches,  accompanied  by  yellowish  and  sickly 
foliage  over  the  whole  tree.  Death  of  the  tree  soon  fol- 
lows. The  cause  of,  and  remedy  for  this  disease  are  un- 
known. 

Preventive  measures.  Root  out  and  burn  ail  affected 
trees  as  soon  as  discovered,  and  use  no  pits  or  buds  from 
infested  districts  for  propagation.  In  some  states,  laws  re- 
quiring the  immediate  destruction  of  infested  trees  have 
been  rigidly  enforced,  with  the  result  that  the  disease  has 
been  nearly  exterminated. 

123*  The  leaf  curl,  due  to  the  fungus  Exoascus  deformans^ 
is  an  abnormal  development  of  the  foliage  in  spring  or 
early  summer,  in  which  the  leaves  assume  a  more  or  less 
puckered  form  and  whitish  color.  In  severe  attacks  the 
trees  become  nearly  defoliated  and  the  fruit  crop  is  de- 
stroyed. The  disease  is  most  common  and  most  serious  in 
wet  seasons  and  in  humid  climates  (103). 

Preventive  measures.  Recent  experiments  have  shown 
that  spraying  peach  trees  with  Bordeaux  mixture  com- 
posed of  5  pounds  of  copper  sulfate,  5  pounds  of  lime  and 
45  gallons  of  water,  shortly  before  the  opening  of  the 
flower  buds,  has  largely  prevented  damage  from  leaf  curl. 

124.  The  rosette  is  a  serious  disease  of  peach  trees  in 
Southern  United  States.  It  is  characterized  by  dense 
clusters  of  foliage  on  the  young  shoots  and  soon  proves 
fatal.  Its  cause  is  a  mystery  and  the  only  preventive 
measure  known  is  the  same  as  described  for  the  yellows  (121). 

125.  "Little  peach"  is  a  disease  that  has  recently  appeared 
in  parts  of  Michigan  and  New  York.  The  peaches  fail  to 
enlarge  or  ripen;  the  trees  lose  vigor  and  finally  die.    The 


Tlic  Apricot. 


97 


cause  of  this  disease  is  also  unknown,  and  the  only  pre- 
ventive measure  is  the  one  described  for  the  j-ellows  (121). 


D  —  THE   APKICOT 

126.  Tlie  apricot  (Prunics  Armeniaca)  resembles  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  both  the  peach  and  plum.  The  fruit,  which  ripens 
earlier  than  either  the  peach  or  plum,  resem- 
bles the  peach,  but  is  smoother,  has  rich,  yel- 
low flesh  and  a  large,  flat,  smooth  stone.  The 
leaves  are  roundish  and  pointed;  the  tree  re- 
sembles the  peach  tree  in  size  and  form. 

The  apricot  is  used  for  dessert,  for  canning 
and  for  drying.  It  is  extensively  evaporated 
in  parts  of  California. 

127.  Cultural  ran§:e.  The  apricot  can  be 
grown  in  about  the  same  localities  as  the 
peach,  but  requires  a  somewhat  stronger  soil 
and  more  careful  treatment,  as  it  is  more  sub- 
ject to  damage  from  frost  and  insects.  It  is 
grown  commercially  to  some  extent  in  the 
Eastern  and  middle  states,  but  chiefly  in  Cali- 
forjiia. 

128.  Fruiting  habit.  The  apricot  bears  its 
flowers  oil  either  side  of  the  leaf  buds  on 
young  shoots,  like  the  peach,  and  also  on 
short  spurs  from  the  preceding  year's  growth, 
like  the  plum  (Fig.  34).  The  flowers  expand 
very  early  in  spring  and  hence  are  especially 

^"'"  **■  liable  to  be  injured  by  frost.  The  trees  com- 
mence bearing  at  3  or  4  years  old,  and  under  the  best  con- 
ditions, are  nearly  or  quite  as  productive  as  the  peach  tree. 

*  Fruiting  wood  of  apricot.    S  S,  spurs. 


98  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

129.  Propagation.  The  apricot  is  commonly  budded  upon 
seedlings  of  the  peach  (115)  both  in  the  east  and  west.  Plum 
stocks  are  sometimes  used  for  adapting  it  to  soils  where 
peach  stocks  do  not  thrive. 

130.  Insects  and  diseases.  The  plum  curculio  (99)  is  the 
most  serious  insect  enemy  of  the  apricot.  In  California 
the  tree  is  troubled  by  various  scale  insects  (142).  The  foli- 
age is  sometimes  injured  by  the  shot-hole  fungus  {Cylin- 
drosporium  imdi),  for  which  Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  pre- 
ventive. 

SUMMARY   OF   THE  PEAR,    QUIN"CE   AND   STONE   FRUITS. 

1.  The  cultural  range  of  the  pear  is  much  restricted 
owing  to  its  susceptibility  to  fire  blight  (TO). 

2.  A  well-drained  clay  soil  of  moderate  fertility,  and  a 
cool,  airy  location  suit  the  pear  best  (71). 

3.  The  tillage  and  fertilization  of  the  standard-pear  or- 
chard should  be  less  thorough  than  that  recommended  for 
the  apple  (73).  The  dwarf-pear  orchard  may  be  more  liber- 
ally tilled,  manured  and  pruned  than  the  standard-pear  or- 
chard (75). 

4.  The  standard  pear  is  commonly  grafted  upon  pear 
seedlings;  the  dwarf  pear  upon  the  French  quince.  Pear 
seedlings  are  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  leaf  blight,  and  by 
being  heaved  out  by  frost.  A  few  varieties  of  the  pear  are 
more  successful  when  worked  upon  the  quince  than  upon 
pear  seedlings  (74,  75). 

5.  The  quality  of  most  pears  is  improved  by  picking  the 
fruit  before  it  begins  to  soften,  and  storing  in  darkness  (77). 

6.  To  confine  the  fire  blight  to  the  younger  branches  of 
the  pear  tree,  it  is  wise  to  remove  fruit  spurs  from  the  trunk 
and  older  branches  (81).  The  leaf  blight  ma}'  be  controlled 
by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  (82). 


Summary.  99 

7.  The  cultural  range  of  the  quince  is  narrower  than 
that  of  the  apple,  and  the  fruit  is  used  almost  wholly  for 
culinary  purposes.  Quince  orchards,  properly  located  and 
cared  for,  have  generally  proved  profitable  (83,  84). 

8.  The  stone  fruits  succeed  on  lighter  and  drier  soil  than 
that  best  suited  to  the  pome  fruits.  The  trees  may,  there- 
fore, be  more  liberally  cultivated  and  manured.  The  flower 
buds  form  flowers  the  flrst  season  of  their  life,  hence  the 
fruit  is  borne  on  wood  of  the  preceding  year  (90,  91,  92). 

9.  Five  different  botanical  species  of  the  plum  are  culti- 
vated in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Of  these,  only  the 
northern  native  plum  is  hardy  in  the  more  northern  sec- 
tions.    The  European  plum  is  most  generally  grown  (94). 

10.  The  plum  fruits  mainly  on  spurs  from  two  or  three- 
year-old  wood.  The  tree  requires  little  pruning,  as  a  rule 
(95,  m). 

11.  The  chief  insect  enemy  of  the  plum  and  cherry  is 
the  plum  curculio.  It  is  mainly  held  in  check  by  the 
*' jarring  process"  (99). 

12.  The  fruit  rot,  a  fungous  disease  that  attacks  the  fruit 
as  it  approaches  maturity,  is  often  a  cause  of  serious  loss 
to  the  plum  and  cherry  grower  in  wet  seasons.  Spraying 
the  fruit  just  before  the  picking  season,  liberal  thinning  of 
the  fruit,  and  picking  it  when  a  little  hard,  are  the  most 
important  preventive  measures  (101). 

13.  The  most  satisfactory  stock  for  the  plum,  at  least  in 
the  north,  is  seedlings  oi'  Fr anus  Americana  (104). 

14.  Two  botanical  species  of  the  cherry  are  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Of 
these,  the  sour  cherry  {Prunus  cerasus)  has  the  much 
wider  cultural  range  (106).  The  fruiting  habit  of  the 
cherry  closely  resembles  that  of  the  plum  (107). 


100  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

15.  The  cherry  thrives  best  on  a  warm,  dry,  sandy  or 
gravelly  loam  (108). 

16.  Seedlings  of  the  bird  and  mahaleb  cherries  are 
chiefly  used  as  stocks  for  the  sweet  and  sour  cherries.  The 
mahaleb  is  the  more  resistant  to  cold  of  the  two  (109). 

17.  The  peach  tree  is  less  resistant  to  cold  than  the 
plum  or  cherry,  and  its  flower  buds  are  more  readily  excited 
by  warm  weather  in  winter.  Its  cultural  range  is  there- 
fore comparatively  narrow  (112,  113), 

18.  The  peach  fruits  on  wood  of  the  preceding  season, 
and  not  from  spurs  (114).  It  is  propagated  by  budding  on 
peach  seedlings  (115). 

19.  Peach  orchards  are  commonly  most  enduring  on  fer- 
tile, well-drained,  clay  loams  (116). 

20.  The  peach  tree  should  be  pruned  to  develop  an 
abundance  of  new  wood  near  the  trunk  (118). 

21.  Peaches  should  be  picked  when  they  are  full-grown 
and  have  begun  to  assume  their  mature  color  (119). 

22.  The  peach  is  much  subject  to  disease.  The  yellows, 
rosette  and  "little  peach"  are  three  serious  diseases  for 
which  no  remedies  are  known.  The  only  preventive  meas- 
ure practiced  is  destruction  of  the  affected  trees.  The  leaf 
curl  is  held  in  check  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
(122-125). 

23.  The  apricot  resembles  the  peach  in  most  characters 
that  have  a  bearing  on  culture.  Its  cultural  range  is  nar- 
rower than  that  of  the  peach  (126-127). 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   LABORATOEY   WORK. 

1.  Study  the  insects  and  diseases  affecting  the  pear, 
quince  and  stone  fruits,  from  the  trees  and  fruits,  so  far  as 
practicable,  and  apply  the  preventive  measures  recom- 
mended. 


The  Citrous  Fruits.  101 

2.  Practice  grafting  the  above-named  fruits,  so  far  as 
means  and  the  time  of  3'ear  permit. 

3.  Study  the  trees  of  the  above-named  fruits  until  each 
species  can  be  recognized  at  a  glance.  This  study  may  be 
made  at  any  time  of  the  year. 

4.  Practice  picking  and  packing  the  fruits  of  the  differ- 
ent species,  so  far  as  the  season  permits. 

5.  Practice  naming  standard  varieties  of  fruit  from  the 
descriptions  in  Downing's  "  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of 
America." 

6.  Practice  writing  descriptions  of  mature  samples  of 
standard  varieties  of  fruits. 

T.  Begin  a  collection  of  pits  of  the  different  varieties  of 
the  stone  fruits,  to  be  used  later  for  determining  varie- 
ties. Number  each  pit,  and  catalogue  the  varieties  by 
number. 

Section  Jf.. — The  Citrous  Fruits 

131.  The  principal  citrous  fruits  grown  commercially 
in  the  United  States  for  their  fruit  are  the  following: 

(a)  The  sweet  orange  {Citrus  aurantiitm,  variety  Sinen- 
sis). 

(b)  The  mandarin  or  kid-glove  orange  {Citrus  nobilis). 

(c)  The  lemon  {Citrus  medica,  var.  Limon). 

(d)  The  lime  {Citrus  medica,  var.  acida). 

(e)  The  pomelo  {Citrus  Decumana). 

All  are  small  trees  or  shrubs  with  evergreen  leaves,  and 
are  hardy  only  in  the  extreme  south  or  southwest.  The 
fruit  of  all  the  above  species  is  injured,  while  on  the  tree, 
by  a  temperature  slightly  below  the  freezing  point,  and 
the  younger  branches  of  the  trees  are  destroyed  by  moder- 
ate freezing. 


102  Zessons  in  Fruit  Growing, 

A — THE  ORAlifGE 

132.  The  sweet  orange  is  a  tree  25  to  30  feet  higt  at 
maturity.  The  fruit  is  prized  for  dessert  and  marmalade 
in  all  countries,  and  the  tree  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
warm  climates. 

133.  The  mandarin  or  kid-glove  orange  is  a  shrub  or 
small  tree,  of  which  the  fruit  is  smaller  and  more  com- 
pressed than  that  of  the  sweet  orange.  The  skin  is  readily 
removed  with  the  fingers,  even  with  gloves  on,  hence  the 
name  "  kid-glove  "  orange.  Its  flavor  is  unlike  that  of  the 
sweet  orange,  but  is  relished  by  many.  The  mandarin  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  orange  regions  that  are  free  from 
hot  winds,  but  the  fruit  is  less  common  in  the  northern 
markets  than  the  sweet  orange. 

134.  Cultural  range.  The  orange  is  grown  commercially 
in  central  and  southern  Florida,  the  delta  region  of  the 
Mississippi  river  and  in  California.  It  is  likely  to  be 
grown  in  the  future  in  parts  of  Texas,  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona. 

In  central  Florida,  and  on  the  Mississippi  delta,  the 
orange  orchards  have  suffered  much  from  freezes  in  winter. 
Though  the  trees  are  not  often  destroyed  by  this  cause^ 
their  fruitage  is  rendered  uncertain.  The  early  ripening 
of  the  fruit  in  these  sections,  and  the  fact  that  irrigation  is 
unnecessary,  renders  orange  growing  very  profitable  when 
the  orchards  escape  damage  by  frost. 

135.  Fruiting  habit.  The  orange,  in  common  with  other 
citrous  fruits,  blossoms  at  the  end  of  short  branches  from 
the  preceding  season's  growth.  After  a  branch  has  fruited, 
another  grows  out  below  and  overreaches  it,  to  bear  fruit 
in  the  future.  The  trees  begin  to  bear  at  about  3  years  of 
age,  and  increase  in  productiveness  for  several  years. 


The  Orange.  103 

136.  Propagation.  The  orange  may  be  propagated  from 
seeds,  cuttings  or  layers,  but  seeds  are  chiefly  used.  In 
California  the  seeds  are  largely  saved  from  commercial 
Tahiti  oranges;  in  Florida,  any  oranges  not  too  valuable 
are  used.  The  seed  should  not  become  dry  before  planting, 
though  that  of  Citrus  trifoliata  will  endure  slight  drying.  It 
should  be  planted  about  an  inch  deep  in  light,  rich  soil,  and 
should  be  mulched  or  frequently  watered  in  dry  weather. 
The  seedlings  appear  in  from  2  to  6  weeks.  They  should 
be  shaded  somewhat  to  protect  them  from  heat,  and  should 
be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture  to  prevent  dampimg  off. 
In  Florida  the  seedlings  may  be  planted  in  nursery  rows 
during  the  summer  rainy  season,  but  less  loss  occurs  when 
one-year-old  plants  are  transplanted  in  midwinter.  The 
seedlings  should  be  watered  when  transplanted,  and  after- 
ward if  needed. 

la  California  young  trees  in  the  nursery  are  often  pro- 
tected from  frost  by  being  covered  with  a  framework  over- 
laid with  cypress  brush. 

Stocks.  Citrus  trifoliata  is  chiefly  used  for  stocks  where 
the  orange  tree  frequently  sufiers  from  cold;  in  other  sec- 
tions the  sour  or  bitter  orange  {Citrus  aurantiuin,  var. 
amara)^  or  the  "rough  lemon,"  supposed  to  be  of  hybrid 
origin,  is  chiefly  used.  Seedlings  of  the  sweet  orange  are 
subject  to  a  disease  known  as  "  foot  rot." 

Budding.  In  California,  seedlings  are  budded  either  in 
spring  or  autumn,  after  they  have  grown  a  year  in  the 
nursery.  In  Florida  they  are  more  often  allowed  to  grow 
3  or  4  years  in  the  nursery  before  budding,  and  are  mostly 
budded  just  before  growth  ceases  in  fall.  In  cutting  back 
the  stock  after  budding,  a  stub  is  commonly  left  for  a  time, 
above  the  inserted  bud,  to  which  the  shoot  from  the  latter 
is  tied.     Grafting  other  than  budding  is  seldom  practiced. 


lOi  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

Old  trees  are  top-worked  by  being  cut  back  severely  and 
budded  in  the  vigorous  shoots  that  grow  from  the  remain- 
ing branches. 

13<r.  Soil.  The  orange  succeeds  best  on  deep,  rich,  well- 
drained  soil.  In  parts  of  Florida  it  is  grown  extensively 
on  sandy  land,  with  abundant  fertilizing.  In  the  delta  of 
the  Mississippi,  it  is  grown  on  deep  alluvial  soil.  In  Cali- 
fornia, alluvial  soil  formed  of  granite  and  limestone  is  con- 
sidered best;  hard-pan  subsoil  and  strata  of  sand  and  gravel 
are  considered  objectionable.  The  orange  requires  abun- 
dant fertilizing  to  maintain  productiveness.  In  Florida 
commercial  fertilizers  are  extensively  used. 

138.  Planting  in  the  orchard.  In  California,  orange  trees 
are  planted  in  the  orchard  at  3  or  4  years  old  from  the 
seed;  in  Florida,  at  4  or  5  years  old  from  the  seed.  Stand- 
ard trees  are  planted  at  24  to  40  feet  apart,  though  trifo- 
liata  stocks  (136)  may  be  set  closer.  In  Florida,  if  orchards 
are  to  be  planted  on  new  hand,  the  holes  for  the  trees  are 
dug  2  or  3  months  before  planting,  and  the  soil  thrown  out 
is  "sweetened"  by  mixing  lime  with  it. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  roots  from  dr3ang 
in  transplanting;  the  tops  should  be  well  cut  back,  and  the 
leaves  are  often  removed  to  prevent  loss  of  water  by  trans- 
piration. Abundance  of  water  should  be  used  in  planting. 
In  California,  protection  of  the  trunk  after  planting  is 
considered  important. 

139.  Orchard  culture.  The  soil  of  the  orange  orchard  is 
generally  kept  cultivated,  but  in  Florida,  cultivation  is 
abandoned  after  the  summer  rains  begin  and  a  fertilizing 
cover  crop  is  planted,  or  crab  grass  is  permitted  to  cover 
the  ground;  the  orchard  is  mown  before  the  fruit  har- 
vest. Three  applications  of  a  fertilizer  rich  in  potash  are 
often  made  in  Florida  during  the  season,  the  first  in  De- 


The  Apricot.  105 

ceniber,  the  second  in  May  or  June,  and  the  third  just  be- 
fore the  fruit  matures. 

140.  Harvesting  and  packing.  The  fruits  are  commonly 
€ut  from  the  tree  to  avoid  bruising.  They  are  exposed  to 
the  air  two  or  three  days  for  "  wilting,"  after  which  they 
are  wrapped  individually  in  tissue  paper  and  packed  in 
boxes  with  moderate  pressure. 

In  Florida,  and  the  delta  region,  harvesting  of  the  early 
varieties  may  begin  in  October,  but  in  California  the  crop 
is  about  a  month  later.  The  later  varieties  mature  sev- 
eral weeks  after  the  earlier  ones.  All  varieties  may  be 
left  on  the  trees  for  several  weeks  after  maturity  without 
damage. 

141.  Protecting  trees  from  cold.  In  northern  Florida 
:and  the  delta  region  the  trunks  of  orange  trees  are  usually 
banked  from  1  to  4  feet  high  on  the  approach  of  freezes, 
which  are  announced  by  the  Weather  Bureau  some  time 
before  their  arrival.  This  saves  the  budded  stem,  but  the 
branches  are  often  destroyed.  Shoots  will,  however,  grow 
out  rapidly  from  the  protected  part  of  the  stem  and  the 
trees  Avill  soon  recover.  Sheds  of  slats  or  canvas  are 
sometimes  built  over  the  trees  in  north  Florida,  and  in 
severe  weather  the  air  within  these  is  heated  by  fire,  or 
kept  from  frost  by  spraying  with  water. 

142.  Harmful  parasites.  The  orange  is  comparatively 
little  injured  by  parasites  or  disease,  with  the  exception  of 
scale  insects,  of  which  several  species  are  injurious.  For 
these,  various  oils  or  caustic  washes  are  used  with  more  or 
less  success.' 

»  Formulae  for  two  of  these  washes  are  given  in  "Principles  of  Plant  Cul- 
ture." For  several  others,  consult  Wickson's  "  California  Fruits."  (Dewey  & 
do.,  San  Francisco.; 


lOG  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing, 

B  —  THE   LEMON" 

143.  The  lemon  is  a  bush  or  small  tree  with  smooth, 
yellowish-green  shoots.  It  is  less  resistant  to  cold  than 
the  orange,  and  its  fruiting  branches  are  longer  and  more 
spreading. 

Cultural  range.  The  lemon  thrives  best  in  a  nearly 
frostless  climate,  but  requires  somewhat  less  summer  heat 
than  the  sweet  orange  —  conditions  that  are  found  in 
the  United  States  only  in  southern  Florida,  and  in  the 
coast  region  and  some  interior  valleys  of  southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

144.  Culture  Of  the  lemon.  The  trees  are  mostly  budded 
on  seedlings  of  the  sour  orange  or  "rough  lemon"  (136). 
They  succeed  best  on  a  lighter  and  warmer  soil  than  is. 
suited  to  the  orange.  The  trees  are  planted  20  to  25  feet 
apart,  and  the  planting  and  orchard  culture  are  as  described 
for  the  orange  (138, 139).  In  Florida  the  orchard  is  fertilized, 
at  the  rate  of  800  to  1,500  pounds  per  acre,  with  a  mixture 
of  sulfate  of  potash,  sulfate  of  ammonia  and  bone  black.  The 
trees  are  pruned  by  shortening  the  slender  fruiting  branches 
and  thinning  out  the  superfluous  shoots. 

145.  Harvesting:  and  curing:.  The  fruits  are  commonly 
cut  from  the  tree  as  fast  as  they  attain  a  diameter  of  2i 
inches,  as  measured  with  an  iron  ring,  usually  before  they 
begin  to  change  color.  They  are  handled  in  shallow  boxes, 
which  are  piled,  with  air  spaces  between,  in  curing  houses 
arranged  to  give  good  ventilation  without  exposing  the 
fruit  to  drafts  of  air  or  great  changes  of  temperature.  The 
crop  is  mostly  picked  in  winter,  but  is  not  marketed  until 
the  next  summer.  The  fruits  are  packed  for  market  as  di- 
rected for  the  orange  (110). 


The  Lime  and  Pomelo,  107 

0  —  THE   LIME 

146.  The  lime  is  a  low,  much-branched,  very  thorny  tree 
or  shrub  that  thrives  on  poorer  soil  and  nearer  salt  water 
than  other  citrous  fruits.  The  fruit  is  prized  in  tropical 
countries  for  cool  drinks  and  in  cookery,  and  is  much  used 
for  making  citric  acid.  Most  varieties  of  the  lime  are  more 
tender  to  endure  cold  than  the  lemon,  but  a  single  sort  — 
the  Sour  Rangpur,  from  India,  is  as  hardy  as  the  sweet 
orange.  The  variety  most  grown  in  Florida  is  the  West 
Indian,  which  is  grown  from  seed.  Other  varieties  are 
budded  on  the  "  rough  lemon  "  and  sour  orange  (136).  The 
trees  are  planted  15  to  25  feet  apart  and  cultivated  like 
orange  trees  (139).  The  lime  is  little  grown  in  California 
but  considerably  in  South  Florida. 

D  —  THE   POMELO 

\A*l.  The  pomelo  tree  is  a  little  larger  than  the  orange 
tree;  it  is  now  extensively  cultivated  in  southern  Florida 
and  California.  The  fruit,  which  is  very  large  and  resem- 
bles the  orange  in  appearance,  though  paler  in  color,  is 
borne  in  clusters  of  3  to  15,  hence  the  common  name 
"grape  fruit."  A  well-marked  variety,  with  pear-shaped 
fruit,  called  shaddock  is  little  cultivated.  The  fruit  of  the 
pomelo  is  esteemed  for  dessert  and  as  a  promoter  of  diges- 
tion. The  culture  practiced  is  much  the  same  as  for  the 
orange.  The  varieties  are  budded  on  seedlings  of  the  pom- 
elo or  the  sweet  or  sour  orange.  The  tree  is  more  readily 
injured  by  cold  than  the  orange  tree. 

SUMMARY   OF   THE   PRECEDING   SECTION 

1.  The  citrous  fruits  are  grown  commercially  in  the 
United  States  only  in  central  and  southern  Florida,  the 


108  Zessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

delta  region  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and  in  California. 
Only  in  the  southern  parts  of  Florida  and  California  do  the 
trees  escape  damage  from  freezing  (133). 

2.  The  orange  is  mostly  propagated  by  budding  on  seed- 
lings of  the  sour  orange,  the  "rough  lemon,"  or  Citrus 
trifoliata;  the  latter  is  used  in  sections  where  the  first  two 
suffer  from  cold  (133). 

3.  The  orange  succeeds  best  on  deep,  rich,  well-drained 
soil.  In  parts  of  Florida  it  is  extensively  grown  on  sandy 
soil,  well  fertilized  (137). 

4.  Orange  trees  are  planted  in  the  orchard  when  3  to  5 
years  old  from  the  seed.  The  trees  are  commonly  grown 
21  to  40  feet  apart,  but  those  worked  on  trifoliata  stocks 
may  be  set  closer  (138). 

5.  Orange  orchards  are  commonly  well  cultivated  during 
the  growing  season.  In  Florida,  cultivation  often  ceases 
after  the  summer  rains  begin  (139). 

6.  The  orange  harvest  begins  in  October  in  the  Gulf  re- 
gion; in  California  it  commences  a  month  later.  The 
fruits  are  cut  from  the  tree,  "  wilted"  a  short  time,  wrapped 
in  tissue  paper  and  packed  in  boxes  with  moderate  pres- 
sure (140). 

7.  Orange  trees  are  protected  from  cold  in  the  Gulf  re- 
gion by  banking  earth  about  the  trunks,  or  by  building 
sheds  over  them.  Sometimes  heat  is  used  in  the  sheds 
(141). 

8.  Scale  insects  are  the  chief  enemies  of  the  orange  tree. 
These  are  held  in  check  by  various  caustic  M^ashes  (142). 

9.  The  lemon  is  less  resistant  to  cold  than  the  orange. 
It  is  grown  in  the  United  States  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Florida  and  California  (143).  Its  culture  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  orange  (144). 


The  Nuts.  109 

10.  Lemons  are  cut  from  the  tree  before  maturity,  and  as 
fast  as  they  attain  a  given  size.  They  are  mostly  harvested 
in  winter,  and  are  cured  in  special  buildings  (145). 

11.  The  lime  thrives  on  poorer  soil  and  nearer  salt  water 
than  other  citrous  fruits.  It  is  grown  in  the  United  States 
chiefly  in  south  Florida  (146). 

12.  The  pomelo  resembles  the  orange  in  form  and  ap- 
pearance, but  is  paler  in  color  and  much  larger.  The  fruit 
is  borne  in  clusters.  It  is  rather  extensively  cultivated  in 
south  Florida  and  California.  Its  culture  differs  little 
from  that  of  the  orange  (147). 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   LABORATORY   WORK 

1.  Within  the  regions  where  citrous  fruits  are  grown, 
students  may  be  required  to  study  the  characteristics  of 
the  different  species  and  varieties,  the  insect  enemies,  etc., 
as  recommended  in  the  section  on  the  stone  fruits. 

2.  The  character  of  the  orange,  as  modified  by  the  climate 
in  which  it  was  grown,  may  be  studied  in  the  local  market 
in  all  localities.  The  structure  of  the  Navel  orange,  as 
compared  with  other  varieties,  may  also  be  studied,  as  well 
as  the  methods  of  packing,  varieties,  etc. 

3.  The  different  species  of  citrous  fruits  may  be  studied 
in  the  local  market. 

Section  5. —  The  Nuts 

148.  Present  condition  and  prospects  of  nut  culture. 

Little  attention  has  thus  far  been  given  to  the  cultivation 
of  nut  trees  in  the  United  States  or  Canada.  Several  kinds 
of  nuts  are  common  in  our  markets,  but  the  chief  supply 
of  native  nuts  still  comes  from  wild  trees.  The  consump- 
tion of  nuts  is  increasing,  while  the  forest  areas  are  rapidly 


110  Zessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

diminishing,  and  tlie  cultivation  of  nuts  is  certain  to  in- 
■crease  in  importance  in  the  future.  Several  of  the  nut 
trees  are  valuable  for  timber;  others  thrive  on  land  that  is 
"worth  little  for  farming.  The  time  required  for  most  nut 
trees  to  produce  paying  crops  will  tend  to  prevent  over- 
planting,  while  the  good  keeping  qualities  of  nuts  render 
them  a  safe  crop  to  grow. 

The  commercial  production  of  nuts  offers  a  promising 
field  to  cultivators  possessing  suitable  land  in  a  favorable 
climate.  Most  nut  plantations  in  this  country  have  thus 
far  been  made  of  seedling  trees.  As  these  are  extremely 
variable,  the  highest  success  cannot  be  hoped  for  in  this 
way.  Now  that  successful  grafting  methods  have  been 
found,  there  is  less  excuse  for  planting  seedlings.  Named 
varieties  may  be  had  that  bear  freely  nuts  of  superior  qual- 
ity, and  only  those,  or  meritorious  wild  trees,  should  be 
propagated  for  the  commercial  nut  orchard.  The  leading 
nurserymen  now  list  the  principal  nut  trees,  and  some 
named  varieties  are  offered.  The  number  of  the  latter  will 
increase  with  the  demand.  All  of  the  native  wild  nuts  are 
decidedly  variable,  and  forms  much  superior  to  the  average 
are  occasionally  found.  With  the  exception  of  the  almond, 
all  of  the  nuts  cultivated  in  this  countrj''  have  monoecious 
flowers,  i.  e.,  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  produced  in  differ- 
ent flowers  on  the  same  plant. 

A — THE  PECAiq- 

149.  The  pecan  [Hkoria  'pecan  or  Carya  olivceformis)  is 
the  most  important  native  American  nut.     The  fruit  is 
largely  used  for  dessert  and  by  confectioners ;  the  commer- 
-cial  demand  for  it  is  rapidly  increasing. 
■    The  tree,  in  its  natural  habitat,  sometimes  attains  im- 


The  Pecan.  Ill 

mense  size,  aud  the  very  tough  and  heavy  wood,  which 
resembles  that  of  the  coramou  hickory,  is  much  used  for 
purposes  requiring  great  strength  and  elasticity.  Like  the 
walnut,  the  tree  has  a  strong  tap-root  while  young,  which 
renders  it  difficult  to  transplant  successfully.  The  tap-root 
is  often  cut  off  by  digging  down  on  one  side  of  the  tree 
the  year  before  the  transplanting  is  contemplated. 

150.  Fruiting  habit.  The  pecan,  in  common  with  all  of 
the  hickories,  bears  its  male  and  female  flowers  separately 
upon  the  growing  shoots;  the  male  flowers  in  slender  cat- 
kins at  the  base  of  the  shoot,  and  the  female  flowers  near  its 
apex,  the  fruit  becoming  lateral  b}^  the  continued  growth 
of  the  shoot.  The  fruit  is  therefore  borne  near  the  base  of 
the  young  wood. 

The  trees  may  yield  paying  crops  of  nuts  at  10  years  old, 
and  the  crops  increase  for  many  years.  A  tree  of  full 
bearing  age  may  yield  from  1  to  20  bushels  annually. 

151.  Cultural  range.  The  pecan  is  indigenous  through- 
out most  of  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  larger 
tributaries,  and  eastern  and  central  Texas,  extending  south- 
ward into  Mexico,  but  nowhere  reaching  the  Gulf  coast. 
Commercial  plantations  have  been  made  over  much  of  this 
region  and  also  in  the  southern  Atlantic  states,  New  Mex- 
ico, California  and  Oregon.  The  trees  are  not  productive 
in  the  east  far  north  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio  rivers. 

152.  Soil  reqairements  and  propagation.  The  moist 
clayey  and  sandy  loams  of  river  bottoms,  subject  to  occa- 
sional overflow,  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  pecan  tree. 
It  also  thrives  on  sufiSciently  moist  and  rich  uplands.  The 
soil  should  be  well  drained.  Grafting  of  the  pecan  is  less 
successful  than  of  most  fruit  trees.  Crown-grafting  on 
pecan  seedlings  an  inch  or  two  in  diameter,  in  early  spring, 


112  Zessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

with  terminal-bud  cions,  and  without  wax,  has  been  most 
successful.  The  stock  should  be  cut  off  smoothly  at  the 
crown,  and  grafted  by  splice  or  side-cleft  graft,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  stock;  but  one  of  the  splice  surfaces 
should  expose  the  pith.  The  grafted  crown  is  mounded  with 
moist  earth  to  the  top  bud  of  the  cion,  to  prevent  drying. 

Ring-budding  on  the  new  wood  of  second-year  seedlings 
is  fairly  successful  when  not  followed  by  drought  or  heavy 
rains. 

To  produce  seedlings,  the  nuts  may  be  planted  in  au- 
tumn, in  well-drained  soil,  but  where  mice  and  squirrels 
are  troublesome,  they  are  preferably  stratified  in  autumn 
and  planted  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be  worked  in 
spring.  The  growth  of  the  young  trees  should  be  en- 
couraged as  far  as  possible  the  first  season. 

153.  Planting  and  cultivation.  The  trees  of  most  pecan 
orchards  have  been  planted  40  to  50  feet  apart,  but  60  feet 
would  probably  be  a  safer  distance.  Ungrafted  seedling 
trees  may  be  i)lanted  closer,  with  the  idea  of  removing  th& 
unprofitable  ones  as  they  become  known.  Formerly,  nuts 
were  often  planted  where  the  trees  were  desired,  but  latterly 
the  trees  have  largely  been  transplanted  at  1  or  2  years 
old  from  nursery  rows.  The  tap-root  of  the  one-year-old 
pecan  tree  is  usually  much  longer  than  the  stem,  but  it  may 
be  moderately  shortened  without  perceptibly  checking  the 
growth. 

The  success  of  the  orchard  depends  much  upon  a  vigorous 
growth  of  the  trees  the  season  after  transplanting,  hence 
the  soil  should  be  made  very  rich,  and  be  thoroughly  pre- 
pared. The  ground  is  usually  cropped  with  hoed  crops  for 
4  or  5  years;  and  some  growers  continue  the  cropping  in- 
definitely.    The  soil  should  be  kept  in  good  fertility. 


The  Pecan,  113 

154.  Pruningf  the  pecan  does  not  appear  to  be  generally- 
practiced,  but  it  is  said  that  the  trees  endure  pruning  well. 
Since  the  fruit  is  borne  only  on  the  new  wood,  it  would 
seem  that,  at  least  in  old  trees,  pruning  might  be  beneficial 
by  increasing  the  number  of  new  shoots. 

155.  Harvesting  and  marketing:.  The  fallen  nuts  are 
commonly  gathered  at  frequent  intervals.  Sometimes  the 
dropping  is  hastened  by  beating  the  branches  with  poles. 
The  nuts  should  not  become  wet,  as  this  would  injure  their 
appearance  and  quality.  They  should  be  dried  someAvhat, 
before  storing  in  bulk.  Most  pecans  of  medium  size  and 
below,  are  polished  by  friction  in  revolving  barrels  before 
marketing.  At  present,  the  demand  for  the  larger  thin- 
shelled  nuts  for  seed  is  so  great,  that  few  reach  the  retail 
market.  Fifteen  to  20  cents  per  pound  is  a  fair  market 
price:  a  bushel  contains  44  to  50  pounds. 

156.  Parasitic  enemies.  The  hickory-shuck  worm 
(Grapholitha  caryana)  is  perhaps  the  most  serious  insect 
enemy  to  the  pecan.  The  larva  penetrates  the  hull  and 
young  nut,  causing  premature  dropping.  The  infested 
nuts  should  be  promptly  gathered  and  burned.  The  fall  web- 
worm  {Hyphantria  cunea)  is  injurious  to  the  foliage.  It 
may  be  controlled  by  burning  the  webs  as  fast  as  discov- 
ered with  a  torch  attached  to  a  pole,  or  by  spraying  with 
an  arsenite.  The  hickory  twig-girdler  (Oncideres  cingu- 
latus)  sometimes  troubles  the  pecan  by  girdling  the  twigs, 
causing  them  to  be  blown  off.  The  fallen  twigs  should  be 
promptly  burned.  Certain  borers  injure  enfeebled  trees; 
the  only  remedy  is  to  destroy  such  trees. 

157.  Other  nut  trees  allied  to  the  pecan.  Several  other 
species  of  the  genus  Hicoria  that  bear  edible  nuts  are  native 
in  northern  United  States.  The  shell  bark  or  shagbark  hick- 


114  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

dry  {Carij  alba  or  Hicoria  ovata)  has  produced  many  wild 
varieties  much  superior  to  the  average  in  size  and  quality. 
Some  of  these  have  been  planted  for  their  nuts.  Now  that 
successful  methods  of  grafting  the  hickory  are  becoming 
known,  the  cultivation  of  this  species  may  become  more 
popular  in  the  north. 

B — THE   CHESTN"UT 

158.  The  American  chestnut  {Casta^iea  Americana)  is  a 
favorite  among  our  native  nuts,  owing  to  its  tender  shell 
and  sweet  meat.  The  nuts  are  extensively  marketed  from 
wild  trees  throughout  its  habitat,  and  increased  attention 
is  being  given  to  its  culture.  The  European  chestnut 
(C.  sativa)  and  the  Japanese  chestnut  (C.  crenata)  have  been 
introduced  and  are  cultivated  to  some  extent. 

Two  species  of  chinkapin  {Castanea  pumila  and  C.  alni- 
folia)  are  more  or  less  dwarfed  trees,  and  bear  small,  early- 
maturing  nuts,  that  are  quite  largely  marketed  from  wild 
trees  in  parts  of  southern  United  States. 

The  American  chestnut  is  a  large  tree;  the  European 
chestnut  is  a  smaller,  lower-branched  tree,  and  the  Japan- 
ese species  is  still  smaller,  and  of  a  compact,  symmetrical 
habit.  The  nuts  of  the  foreign  species  are  larger  than  those 
of  the  American,  but  they  are  more  astringent  and  less  sweet. 

159.  Cultural  range.  The  American  chestnut  is  native 
from  southern  Maine  to  Delaware  and  along  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains  to  northern  Alabama,  extending  to  the 
Atlantic  coast  in  North  Carolina;  also  westward  through 
southern  Canada  to  southern  Michigan,  southern  Indiana 
and  Illinois,  through  Tennessee,  Kentucky  and  Mississippi 
to  Louisiana.  Its  area  has  been  extended  slightly  by  plant- 
ings, but  the  southern  range  appears  to  be  receding  to  the 


The  Chestnut.  115 

northward.     The  foreign  species  are  less  hardy  than  the 
native. 

160.  Fruiting  habit.  The  pollen-bearing  flowers  of  the 
chestnut  grow  from  the  axils  of  successive  or  alternate 
leaves  on  the  young  shoots,  opening  in  early  summer,  in 
long  catkins  which  bear  fragrant  pollen.  The  pistillate  or 
female  flowers  grow  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves  on  the 
more  extended  shoot,  in  four-pointed  burs  on  stiff  spikes. 
The  female  flowers  are  thus  developed  on  later  and  younger 
wood  than  the  male.  Usually  only  1  to  3  flowers  near  the 
base  of  the  spike  produce  nuts.  In  the  American  chestnut 
two  to  seven  nuts  are  commonly  borne  in  a  husk.  The  in- 
termingling of  pollen  from  different  trees  is  thought  essen- 
tial to  productiveness  by  some  growers. 

Ungrafted  trees  of  the  American  chestnut  commence 
bearing  at  12  to  20  years  old;  grafted  ones  at  2  to  7  years 
after  grafting.  Wild  trees  difier  greatly  in  fruitfulness, 
the  more  productive  ones  yielding  regular  crops  of  one 
or  more  bushels  per  tree.  The  Japanese  chestnut  bears 
youngest  and  most  freely  of  all. 

161.  Soil.  The  native  chestnut  is  usually  found  on  high, 
sandy  land,  gravel  ridges  or  mountain  slopes,  and  generally 
on  soil  nearly  or  quite  free  from  limestone.  On  deep  prairie 
soils  and  alluvial  bottom  lands  it  is  short-lived.  It  is  thus 
suited  to  land  not  specially  valuable  for  farm  crops, 

162.  Propagation.  The  chestnut  is  readily  propagated 
by  planting  the  nuts.  These  should  be  stratified  in  au- 
tumn, before  becoming  dry,  in  moist  sand  and  kept  over 
winter  in  a  cool  cellar  or  buried  in  the  ground.  They  should 
be  planted  an  inch  or  two  deep  in  early  spring.  The  chest- 
nut may  be  grafted  on  any  species  of  its  own  genus  and  on 
some  of  the  oaks.     Most  American  chestnut  orchards  have 


116  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

been  formed  by  cutting  down  native  cbestnut  groves  and 
grafting  sprouts  from  the  stumps.  Ordinary  grafting  meth- 
ods, carefully  performed,  are  fairly  successful.  In  budding, 
dormant  buds  are  usually  inserted  when  the  bark  peels  in 
the  spring,  in  shoots  of  the  previous  year.  Rank-growing 
grafts  should  be  checked  by  pinching,  and  if  exposed  to 
winds  they  should  be  tied  to  stakes  to  prevent  their  being 
blown  off.  The  chinkapin  has  been  used  to  some  extent 
as  a  stock  for  the  native  and  introduced  chestnuts. 

163.  Orchard  treatment  The  orchards  grown  from 
grafted  sprouts  are  cared  for  by  cutting  out  brambles  and 
superfluous  sprouts,  or  pasturing  with  sheep,  and  by  guard- 
ing the  trees  from  fire.  Planted  trees  of  the  American 
species  should  be  set  40  to  50  feet  apart:  those  of  the  for- 
eign species  may  be  set  somewhat  closer.  The  ground 
may  be  used  for  other  crops  until  the  trees  shade  it,  but 
these  will  thrive  best  if  the  soil  is  kept  well  cultivated  and 
moderately  fertile.  Little  pruning  is  necessary.  The  burs 
on  some  trees  of  the  foreign  species  may  require  thinning 
to  prevent  overbearing. 

164.  Preparing  for  market.  The  nuts  are  prepared  for 
market  by  pouring  boiling  water  over  them  in  a  suitable 
vessel,  as  soon  as  gathered.  By  stirring  the  nuts  in  the  hot 
water,  the  wormy  ones  will  float  and  can  be  removed.  The 
eggs  and  larvae  of  insects  are  destroyed  by  the  heat,  and 
the  kernel  of  the  nuts  is  rendered  more  tender.  After  15 
minutes  the  water  should  be  poured  off  and  the  nuts  spread 
for  drying.     Scalded  nuts  will  not  germinate. 

165.  Harmful  parasites.  Several  species  of  curculio  in- 
fest the  chestnut.  Scalding  the  nuts  (161)  tends  to  keep 
these  in  check.  Certain  leaf  diseases  may  probably  be  pre- 
vented by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 


The  Walnut.  117 

C  —  THE   WALNUT 

166,  The  species.  Only  one  species  of  tlie  walnut,  viz., 
the  so-called  English  or  Persian  walnut  {Juglans  regia) 
is  cultivated  commercially  for  its  nuts  in  North  America. 
The  native  black  walnut  [J.  nigra)  and  the  butternut 
{J.  cinera)  are  prized  for  their  timber  and  for  shade,  and 
their  nuts  are  frequently  gathered  for  market  from  the  wild 
trees.  The  trees  of  the  species  named  grow  to  a  large  size 
and  are  long-lived.  The  wood  of  the  black  walnut  is  greatly 
prized  for  cabinet  work,  owing  to  its  deep  brown  color. 

16<r.  Cultural  range.  The  English  walnut  is  more  or  less 
cultivated  in  sheltered  locations  and  on  rich  soil  from 
Southern  New  York  southward  to  Northern  Georgia,  and 
westward  across  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  to  the  Mississippi 
river.  In  Southern  California  its  culture  is  more  general, 
and  in  certain  locations  it  proves  very  profitable.  The 
tree  is  fastidious  as  to  conditions  and  is  productive  in  com- 
paratively few  localities.  The  soil  should  be  rich,  moist 
and  well-drained.  In  California  it  is  most  successful  in 
villages  within  30  miles  of  the  coast,  and  where  ground 
water  is  within  10  to  15  feet  of  the  surface, 

168.  Fruiting:  habit.  The  staminate  flowers  of  the  wal- 
nut are  borne  in  single  catkins,  from  wood  of  the  previous 
season,  and  the  pistillate  ones  at  the  ends  of  short  branches. 

In  California  the  trees  begin  to  fruit  at  4  to  10  years  old; 
in  the  Atlantic  states  at  10  to  20  years.  Two  to  5  pounds 
of  nuts  per  tree  is  an  average  crop  for  the  second  bearing 
year.  Some  20-year-old  trees  in  California  yield  3  bushels 
per  year.  In  Southern  California,  the  crop  begins  to  ripen 
from  the  tenth  to  the  last  of  September. 

The  admixture  of  varieties  for  pollination  is  regarded  as 
important. 


118  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

169.  Propagation.  Most  American  orcliards  of  the 
English  walnut  consist  of  seedling  trees.  The  largest, 
thinnest-shelled  nuts,  from  trees  that  combine  hardiness 
and  productiveness,  and  that  start  growth  late  in  spring, 
should  be  chosen  for  planting.  These  may  be  stratified 
over  winter  in  moist  sand,  and  as  they  germinate  in  spring, 
the  sprouted  nuts  may  be  planted  on  deep,  rich,  well- 
drained  soil,  1  foot  apart  in  rows  4  feet  apart,  and  covered 
about  2  inches  with  fine  soil,  well  firmed  about  the  seed. 
The  seedlings  should  grow  sufficiently  for  budding  the 
first  season,  but  if  to  be  planted  in  the  orchard  without 
budding,  they  are  commonly  left  in  the  nursery  2  or  3 
years.  The  trees  may  be  budded  by  either  the  shield  or 
ring  method.  Cleft  grafting  has  also  been  successfully 
practiced. 

1^0.  Orchard  culture  and  pruning:.  The  trees  are 
planted  about  40  feet  apart  each  way.  Clean  culture  is  ad- 
vised for  the  first  few  years,  though,  if  well  fertilized,  the 
ground  may  be  used  for  low-growing  hoed  crops  or  for 
the  smaller  and  shorter-lived  fruit  trees. 

California  growers  prune  off  only  those  limbs  that  would 
interfere  with  cultivation.  Wounds  should  be  waxed  to 
keep  water  from  the  pith. 

1^1.  Harvesting,  curing  and  marketing.  In  some  local- 
ities, the  ripe  hulls  open  on  the  trees,  permitting  the  nuts 
to  fall.  In  this  case,  the  ground  beneath  the  trees  is  cleared 
of  leaves,  and  the  fallen  nuts  are  gathered  once  or  twice  a 
week  and  taken  to  the  drying-house.  Young  trees  are 
jarred  to  promote  the  dropping  of  the  nuts.  Beating  the 
trees  with  poles  is  not  advised.  Where  the  hull  does  not 
open,  the  nuts  are  left  on  the  ground  until  the  hull  be- 
comes brown,  when  it  is  removed  by  hand  or  by  light 
pounding.    Shells  discolored  by  the  hulls  are  washed. 


The  Almond.  119 

The  nuts  are  dried  by  exposure  to  the  sun  on  platforms 
or  trays,  or  in  large  orchards,  by  artificial  heat.  Three 
days  of  sun  exposure,  or  6  or  7  hours  drying  at  200°  F., 
cures  them  sufficiently  so  that  the  meats  remain  fnish  sev- 
eral months  in  a  dry,  cool  place. 

The  nuts  are  commonly  marketed  in  sacks  holding 
about  120  pounds.  Some  growers  grade  the  nuts  according 
to  size.  The  prices  received  by  growers  range  from  4^  to 
20  cents  per  pound. 

\X2,  Introduced  walnuts.  Three  other  species  of  wal- 
nuts, iiz.^Juglans  Sieboldiana,  J.cordiformis  and  J.  Mand- 
sJmrica,  have  been  introduced  into  the  United  States  from 
eastern  Asia,  but  are  not  yet  grown  commercially.  The  first 
two  promise  to  be  valuable  in  California.  Several  hybrids 
between  different  species  of  walnuts  have  been  reported. 

D  — THE   ALMOND 

1^3.  The  almond  {Primus  Amygdalus)  resembles  the 
peach  in  habit  of  growth,  and  the  nut  is  the  pit  of  a  peach- 
like fruit,  in  which  the  fleshy  part  is  thin  and  hard  and 
splits  at  maturity.  The  almonds  are  divided  into  two 
classes  —  the  bitter  and  the  sweet.  The  sweet  class  includes 
hard-shell  and  soft-shell  types,  of  which  the  latter  pro- 
duce the  edible  almonds  of  commerce. 

It4.  Cultural  range.  The  successful  culture  of  the  al- 
mond in  North  America  is  limited  to  a  few  comparatively 
small  districts  in  California,  Utah  and  Arizona.  The  tree 
is  nearly  as  hardy  as  the  peach  tree,  but  the  flowers  open 
so  early  that  they  are  almost  invariably  destroyed  by  frost, 
except  in  the  districts  noted.  The  most  successful  almond 
orchards  in  California  are  on  "bench"  or  hillside  situ- 
ations, far  enough  from  salt  water  to  escape  fogs,  and  with 
aspects  that  are  little  subject  to  spring  frosts. 


120  Lessons  in  Fruit  Gi 


'owmg. 


1T5.  Fruiting:  habit.  The  almond  closely  resembles  the 
peach  in  its  manner  of  flowering  and  fruiting  (114).  The 
tree  comes  into  bearing  at  2  to  4  years  from  budding,  and 
reaches  mature  fruitage  at  7  to  10  years  of  age.  Five 
pounds  of  hulled  almonds  per  tree  is  reported  a  good  aver- 
age crop  for  an  orchard  in  California.  The  nuts  begin  to 
ripen  about  the  middle  of  August.  The  admixture  of  vari- 
eties for  pollination  is  regarded  important. 

1  ?6.  The  soil  for  the  almond  should  be  light,  warm  and 
well  drained.  The  tree  will  endure  much  drought,  but 
only  yields  good  crops  on  rich,  well-watered  soils. 

Ut.  Propa§:ation.  The  almond  is  chiefly  propagated  by 
budding  on  seedlings  of  sweet  or  bitter,  hardshell  almonds, 
though  peach  stocks  ^  are  sometimes  used.  The  seedlings 
may  be  grown  as  described  for  the  peach  (115).  The  trees 
may  be  planted  in  the  orchard  the  spring  after  budding,  or 
the  following  spring. 

1  ?8.  Planting  and  pruning.  The  trees  should  be  planted 
at  least  24  feet  apart  each  way.  The  young  trees  are  com- 
monly cut  back  at  planting  to  form  a  low  head.  The 
branches  are  thinned,  leaving  about  five,  and  the  follow- 
ing winter,  these  are  cut  back  to  encourage  them  to  branch 
near  the  trunk.  The  next  winter  the  trees  are  pruned 
to  a  vase  form;  henceforward  only  the  inner  branches  are 
thinned  out  as  they  become  too  thick. 

U9.  Preparing  tlie  crop  for  market.  In  sections  with 
a  very  dry  summer  atmosphere  the  hull  opens  readily,  ex- 
posing the  unstained  nuts  ready  for  market.  In  regions 
with  a  moister  atmosphere,  the  more  or  less  stained  nuts 
are  bleached  by  sulfur  fumes.  The  nuts  are  first  well 
dried,  then  lightly  sprayed  with  water  and  treated  to  the 
sulfur  fumes,  which  do  not  penetrate  to  the  kernel.     More 


The  Hazel.  121 

or  less  of  the  nuts  have  adlieriiig  hulls  which  are  separated 
by  a  machine  called  an  almond  huller.  Nuts  stained  by 
rain  cannot  be  bleached  by  sulfur,  and  must  be  sold  for 
confectioners'  use.  The  quality  of  almonds  depends  upon 
the  smoothness,  symmetry  and  plumpness  of  the  kernels. 

180.  Parasitic  enemies.  The  almond  trees  of  California 
are  often  injured  by  the  red  spider  {Tetramjchus  telarius), 
which  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  a  caustic  solu- 
tion. This  may  be  made  by  boiling  3  pounds  of  sulfur 
and  2  pounds  of  caustic  soda  in  2  gallons  of  water;  adding 
when  the  sulfur  is  dissolved,  25  pounds  of  whale-oil  soap, 
diluting  with  enough  water  to  make  100  gallons  after  the 
soap  is  dissolved  by  continued  boiling. 

A  shot-hole  fungus  (Cercospora  circitmscissa)  is  often 
destructive  to  the  foliage  of  the  almond  in  California, 
Three  or  more  sprayings  with  am  moniacal  solution  of  cop- 
per carbonate  '  ax-e  recommended  for  this  disease.  The  first 
treatment  should  be  given  as  soon  as  the  leaves  appear. 

E  —  THE   HAZEL 

181.  The  hazel  {Corylus)  has  been  little  cultivated  in 
North  America,  though  two  native  species  are  widely  dis- 
tributed. In  Europe,  two  species  are  extensively  cultivated 
and  yield  most  of  the  hazel  nuts  and  filberts  of  our  markets. 
Our  wild  species  are  quite  variable,  and  individual  plants 
bearing  nuts  of  good  size  and  quality  have  been  reported 
from  many  places.  The  species  are  hardier  than  most  of 
our  cultivated  fruits,  and  are  worthy  the  attention  of  hor- 
ticulturists in  severe  climates.  The  suckering  habit  of  the 
plant  is  perhaps  its  most  serious  objection,  though  it  is 

"  For  directions  for  making  the  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbonate, 
see  "Principles  of  Plant  Culture." 


122 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Groioing. 


probably  little  worse  in  this  respect  than  the  raspberry. 
The  dwarf  habit  of  our  native  species  commends  them  for 
cultivation  in  small  grounds.  Some  foreign  species  attain 
the  size  of  small  trees. 

182.  Fruiting  habit.  The  staminate  flowers  are  produced 
in  catkins  from  the  previous  season's  growth,  and  the  pis- 
tillate ones,  which  form  a  star-like  tuft  of  crimson  stigmas, 
grow  at  the  base  of  the  catkins  (Figs.  35,  36).  The  pistil- 
late flowers  sometimes  bloom 
later  than  the  staminate  ones  on 
the  same  plant,  rendering  it  un- 
fruitful unless  pollen  is  received 
from  another  plant.  The  hazel 
commonly  bears  considerable 
fruit  the  fifth  or  sixth  year  after 
planting. 

183.  Propagation  and  orchard 
culture.  In  Europe,  the  hazel 
is  propagated  by  seed,  layers, 
suckers,  cuttings  and  grafting. 
Nursery  plants  are  generally 
grown  from  cuttings  8  to  10 
inches  long,  from  the  previous 
year's  wood.  If  packed  in  moist 
sand,  the  cuttings  become  well 
rooted  in   one  season,  and  can 

be  transplanted  to    the   nursery,    (From  Bailey's  "Pruning  Book. "> 

where,  during  the  next  two  seasons,  the  plants  are  trained 
to  a  single  stem. 

The  hazel  thrives  in  nearly  all  soils  except  stiff  clay  or 
dry  sand.  A  light  loam  with  dry  subsoil  gives  the  smallest 
growth  of  wood  and  the  largest  yield  of  nuts.     The  trees 


Fio.  35,  Fig. 

Fig.  35.    Staminate   flowers   of 
the  hazel. 
Fig.  36.    Pistillate  flowers. 


Summary  of  the  Preceding  Section,  12S 

are  set  10  feet  apart  each  way,  or  sometimes  nearer  in 
the  row.  The  shoots  are  thinned  hy  summer  pruning,  and 
those  left  are  cut  back  toward  the  end  of  winter.  The 
fruitful  limbs  are  cut  back  nearly  to  the  buds  of  the  female 
flowers. 

184.  Harvesting  and. marketing:.  The  nuts  are  permitted 
to  become  fully  ripe,  as  is  indicated  by  the  brown  color  of 
the  shell  and  the  readiness  with  which  they  may  be  jarred 
out  of  the  husks.  The  husks  are  then  gathered  and  spread 
in  a  loft  for  a  few  days  to  dry  when  they  are  packed,  with- 
out shelling,  in  casks,  with  a  slight  sprinkling  of  salt  to 
keep  out  insects. 

185.  Insect  enemies.  A  curculio  belonging  to  the  genus 
Balaninus  lays  its  egg  in  the  young  nut  in  summer,  and 
the  larva  hatching  from  it  causes  the  well-known  ''  wormy  " 
hazelnuts.  This  insect  could  doubtless  be  controlled  by 
the  methods  used  in  combating  the  plum  curculio  (99). 

SUMMARY   OF   THE   PRECEDING   SECTION" 

1.  The  consumption  of  nuts  in  North  America  is  increas- 
ing, while  their  production  is  decreasing,  owing  to  the 
clearing  of  the  wild  lands.  The  culture  of  nut  trees  is, 
therefore,  assuming  importance  (148). 

2.  The  pecan  is  the  most  important  nut  native  to  the 
United  States  (149). 

3.  The  pecan  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  the  Atlantic  states  south  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac 
rivers,  and  in  California  and  Oregon  (151). 

4.  The  pecan  thrives  on  the  rich,  moist  loams  of  river 
bottoms.  Varieties  of  it  are  propagated  by  grafting  on 
pecan  seedlings  (152). 

5.  Pecan  trees  should  be  planted  40  to  60  feet  apart,  on 


124  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

ricli  land,  thoroughly  prepared.     The  soil  between  the 
trees  may  be  planted  with  hoed  crops  (153). 

6.  Pecan  nuts  are  gathered  as  they  fall;  they  should  not 
become  wet;  those  of  medium  size  and  below  are  polished 
before  marketing  (155). 

7.  Three  species  of  the  chestnut  are  cultivated  to  some 
extent  in  eastern  United  States;  the  native  species  is  hardi- 
est of  the  three,  and  produces  the  sweetest  nuts,  but  the 
two  introduced  species  produce  larger  nuts  (159). 

8.  The  chestnut  thrives  on  high,  sandy  land,  gravel 
ridges  or  mountain  slopes  (161).  The  trees  are  grown  from 
seed,  and  improved  varieties  are  perpetuated  by  ordinary 
grafting  methods  (162). 

9.  The  soil  of  the  chestnut  orchard  is  preferably  kept 
well  cultivated  and  moderately  fertile  (163). 

10.  The  English  or  Persian  walnut  is  cultivated  to  some 
extent  in  eastern  United  States,  but  principally  in  southern 
California.  The  trees  are  productive  in  only  a  few  locali- 
ties (167). 

11.  Trees  of  the  English  walnut  are  seldom  grafted;  the 
largest,  thinnest-shelled  nuts  from  hardy  and  productive 
trees  are  commonly  planted  (169). 

12.  Trees  of  the  English  walnut  are  planted  about  40 
feet  apart  each  way.  The  ground  should  be  cultivated ;  if 
well  fertilized,  it  may  be  planted  with  hoed  crops,  or  the 
smaller  fruit  trees  (170). 

13.  The  nuts  are  gathered  as  they  fall;  if  the  hulls  do 
not  open,  they  are  removed  by  hand,  or  by  light  pounding. 
The  nuts  must  be  dried  before  being  stored  in  bulk  (171). 

14.  The  almond  is  successful  in  the  United  States  only 
in  a  few  districts  in  California,  Utah  and  Arizona  (174). 
The  tree  resembles  the  peach  tree  in  many  respects  (175). 


Suggestions  for  Laboratory   Worh.  125 

15.  The  almond  is  chiefly  propagated  by  budding  on 
seedlings  of  the  sweet  or  bitter,  hard-shell  almond  (177). 
The  trees  should  be  planted  at  least  24  feet  apart,  on  light, 
warm,  well-drained  soil  (176,  178). 

16.  The  quality  of  almonds  depends  upon  the  smooth- 
ness, symmetry  and  plumpness  of  the  kernels.  In  regions 
having  a  moist  atmosphere,  the  nuts  are  bleached  with 
sulfur  fumes  to  restore  their  brightness  (179). 

17.  The  hazel  has  been  little  cultivated  in  North  Amer- 
ica, but  the  hardiness  of  the  plant  commends  it  for  north- 
ern localities  where  feAV  fruits  can  be  grown  (181). 

18.  The  hazel  may  be  readily  propagated  by  cuttings 
and  thrives  on  nearly  all  soils  (183). 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LABORATORY  WORK 

1.  Ascertain  the  species  of  nuts  sold  in  your  local  mar- 
ket, the  price  at  which  each  is  sold,  and  the  locality  whence 
each  came. 

2.  Ascertain  the  species  of  nut  trees  that  are  native  in 
your  locality. 

3.  Require  the  students  to  study  sample  trees  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  nuts,  so  far  as  they  are  available,  until  each 
can  name  every  one  at  a  glance. 

4.  Practice  grafting  the  different  nut  trees,  so  far  as 
practicable. 

5.  Study  the  variations  of  the  wild  nuts  produced  in 
your  locality,  and  require  each  student  to  select  his  ideal 
type,  giving  reasons  for  his  choice. 


126  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

CHAPTER  III 

THE  GRAPE 

186.  The  grape  is  rapidly  becoming  one  of  the  principal 
American  fruits.  The  varieties  now  chiefly  grown  in  this 
country  are  of  American  origin  and  have  nearly  all  been 
produced  within  the  past  half  century,  mainly  from  the 
following  species: 

(a)  Vitis  Labrusca,  the  northern  fox  grape,  which  is  the 
parent  of  the  Catawba,  Isabella,  Concord,  etc. 

(b)  Vitis  osstivaUs,  the  summer  grape,  the  parent  of  the 
Clinton  grape  and  others  of  its  class. 

(c)  Vitis  cordifolia,  the  winter  or  frost  grape,  with  its 
variety,  riparia,  is  the  more  common  wild  grape  of  the 
northern  states.   .  -r  ■£.  y  ■  ^ 

(d)  Vitis  Vulpind.  the  southern  fox  grape,  the  parent  of 
the  Scuppernong  variety. 

Formerly  many  experiments  were  made  in  this  country 
with  the  European  grape  {Vitis  Vinifera),  but  this  species 
proved  too  subject  to  disease  in  the  east.  It  is  much  grown 
in  the  far  southwest. 

Most  species  of  the  grape  hybridize  readily,  and  many  of 
our  cultivated  varieties  are  hybrids.  The  hybrids  between 
the  European  and  American  grapes  have  generally  proved 
unsatisfactory  through  their  liability  to  disease. 

18t,  Soil  and  exposure.  A  warm  and  prolonged  sum- 
mer temperature  is  essential  to  the  development  of  the  finer 
qualities  of  the  grape.  In  the  northern  states,  a  southern 
exposure,  in  localities  especially  exempt  from  untimely 
frosts,  and  a  perfectly-drained,  light,  loamy  soil  are  most 


The  Grajpe.  127 

favorable.  Rather  steep  hillsides  may  be  used  for  the  grape 
by  terracing. 

188.  Propa§:ation.  The  grape  is  readily  propagated  by 
layers  and  cuttings  and  less  readily  by  grafting.  Seed- 
lings are  rarely  grown  except  to  obtain  new  varieties. 

(a)  Bij  laijers.  New  shoots  of  most  varieties  of  the 
grape,  layered  before  midsummer,  usually  root  freely  the 
first  season.  This  method  forms  a  convenient  way  for  the 
amateur  to  propagate  a  few  vines,  and  the  superfluous 
shoots  from  the  base  of  bearing  vines  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  But  where  vines  are  wanted  in  large  numbers, 
and  of  varieties  which  do  not  readily  root  from  cuttings, 
vines  should  be  planted  expressly  for  laj'ering.  In  this 
case,  the  soil  should  be  made  very  rich  to  produce  a  vigor- 
ous growth  of  shoots.  These  parent  vines  should  be 
planted  6  or  T  feet  apart  and  should  be  permitted  to  grow 
2  or  3  years,  or  until  2  or  3  vigorous  shoots  are  produced, 
before  layering  begins.  It  is  well  to  train  these  shoots  to 
upright  stakes.  About  the  time  the  leaf  buds  begin  to 
open,  the  strongest  of  these  shoots  may  be  layered  by  put- 
ting down  so  much  of  each  shoot  as  has  strong,  well- 
developed  buds,  in  a  straight  trench  about  5  inches  deep,  in 
which  it  is  held  i;i  place  b}^  pegs  or  stones.  When  shoots 
from  the  buds  on  the  layered  cane  have  grown  a  fcAv 
inches,  the  cane  should  be  lightly  covered  with  earth  or 
compost,  and  it  is  well  to  mulch  it  with  a  little  loose,  damp 
moss.  Too  much  earth  added  at  first  may  cause  rotting  of 
the  young  stems.  Usually  not  more  than  6  plants  should 
be  raised  from  one  cane,  and  if  the  shoots  of  these  grow 
unequally,  the  more  vigorous  ones  should  be  pinched.  In 
the  meantime,  one  or  more  young  shoots,  the  number  de- 
pending on  the  strength  of  the  parent  plant,  should  be 


128  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

trained  upright,  for  laj-ering  the  next  season.  The  plants 
from  the  layered  cane  should  be  well  rooted  before  winter. 
They  should  be  taken  up  in  autumn,  separated  by  cutting 
the  parent  cane  between  the  plants,  and  kept  through  the 
winter  by  being  buried  in  a  well-drained  place  in  the  open 
ground,  or  in  a  cool,  moist  cellar. 

The  layering  process  may  be  repeated  in  successive  years. 
Should  the  parent  plant  show  reduced  vigor,  layering 
should  be  omitted  one  season  to  permit  it  to  recuperate. 

(b)  By  cuttings.  Most  varieties  of  the  grape  are  readily 
propagated  from  cuttings  of  the  previous  year's  growth. 
The  cuttings  are  preferably  made  in  autumn.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  use  cuttings  containing  two  nodes,  cut  shortly 
below  the  proximal  node  and  an  inch  or  two  above  the 
distal  one.  The  cuttings  may  be  buried  a  foot  or  more 
deep,  in  well-drained  soil  in  autumn,  and  some  varieties 
are  found  to  root  better  if  buried  with  their  proximal  end 
uppermost.  The  canes  may  be  buried  during  winter  and 
the  cuttings  made  in  spring,  but  it  is  usuallj^  more  satis- 
factory to  make  the  cuttings  in  autumn. 

The  cuttings  should  b.e  planted  in  spring,  in  well  pre- 
pared soil,  and  up  to  the  distal  bud.  They  may  be  placed 
4  or  6  inches  apart  in  rows,  preferably  running  north  and 
south,  and  the  rows  should  be  far  enough  apart  to  admit 
of  convenient  cultivation.  Well-crumbled  soil  should  be 
compactly  pressed  about  the  cuttings.  To  facilitate  the 
latter  process,  the  cuttings  are  often  laid  against  the  slop- 
ing side  of  a  trench.  This  is  then  filled  with  the  soil, 
which  is  pressed  about  the  cuttings  with  the  foot. 

It  is  important  to  shade  the  cuttings  from  bright  sun- 
shine. This  may  be  done  by  supporting  a  board,  8  or  10 
inches  wide,  on  light  stakes  a  short  distance  above  the  row, 


The  Grape.  129 

and  the  shacliug  should  be  so  placed  over  the  row  as  to  in- 
tercept the  snn's  raj's  during  the  warmer  part  of  the  day. 
It  should  be  left  on  until  after  midsummer,  when  it  is  pref- 
erably removed. 

The  grape  is  often  propagated  under  glass,  and  over  bot- 
tom heat,  from  single-bud  cuttings.  For  this  purpose,  the 
wood  should  be  cut  in  autumn  and  kept  through  winter  as 
before  described.  The  cuttings  are  made  and  planted  dur- 
ing March  and  the  first  part  of  April.  They  may  be  of 
various  forms.  An  improved  method  is  to  cut  the  distal 
eud  one-fourth  inch  above  the  bud,  and  the  proximal  end 
about  two  inches  below  the  bud.  These  cuttings  are  planted 
at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  so  that  the  bud,  which  points  up- 
ward, just  appears  above  the  surface.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  pievent  the  drying  of  the  cuttings  during  their  prepara- 
tion and  insertion.  When  the  cuttings  are  to  be  grown  in 
hotbeds  they  are  usually  placed  in  small  pots,  but  when 
intended  for  the  propagating  house,  they  may  be  grown 
directly  in  the  beds  if  preferred.  In  making  the  propa- 
gating bed  for  grape  cuttings,  a  thin  layer  of  potting 
soil  is  sometimes  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  bed  to  nourish 
the  rooted  cuttings  until  they  can  be  potted.  After  pot- 
ting they  are  allowed  to  grow  until  well  rooted  before 
planting  out. 

The  grape  is  also  sometimes  propagated  from  green  cut- 
tings, but,  as  vines  thus  grown  do  not  always  mature  well 
be'ore  winter,  they  are  objected  to  by  many. 

(c)  Boot  (/raffing.  The  grape  is  now  extensively  root- 
grafted  in  some  localities.  A  short  section  of  root  is  cut 
wedge-form  at  the  distal  end  and  the  wedge  is  inserted  into 
the  proximal  end  of  a  cutting  made  as  directed  for  single- 
eye  cuttings.     The  union  is  then  wound  with  a  grafting 


130  Zessons  m  Fruit  Growing. 

plaster,  after  which  the  grafts  are  set  upright  in  hoxes 
about  1  by  2  feet  and  2  inches  deep,  and  phiced  in  bottom 
heat,  as  described  for  single-bud  cuttiugs.  The  grafts  re- 
quire less  care  than  do  cuttings. 

(d)  Crown  grafting  the  grape  in  the  open  ground  is 
sometimes  practiced,  though  the  attempt  is  often  unsuccess- 
ful. The  graft  is  inserted  in  the  crown  of  the  root,  or  in 
the  root  below  the  crown,  either  early  in  spring,  before  the 
"  bleeding  "  season,  or  in  autumn.  The  cleft  graft  is  mostly 
used  and  the  parts  are  bound  together  without  waxing. 
In  all  cases,  the  union  should  be  protected  from  the  weather, 
either  by  covering  directly  with  soil  or,  when  the  work  is 
done  in  autumn,  by  first  covering  with  an  inverted  flower 
pot  and  burying  this  in  soil. 

Young  vines  grown  from  layers  or  cuttings  are  com- 
monly left  in  the  nursery  one  season  before  being  planted 
in  the  vineyard.  They  should  be  trained  to  a  single  shoot, 
which  should  be  tied  to  an  upright  stake.  Strong  vines 
of  vigorous  varieties  often  make  a  growth  of  6  or  more  feet 
the  first  season. 

189.  Preparation  of  soil  and  planting:.  The  soil  for  the 
vineyard  should  be  well  prepared  by  thorough  plowing 
and  harrowing,  and  by  rolling  if  need  be.  A  moderate 
degree  of  fertility  is  best.  The  rows  may  be  laid  off  as 
directed  for  laying  out  orchards  (26).  They  may  be  7 
or  8  feet  apart,  according  to  the  vigor  of  the  variety;  or 
the  rows  may  be  placed  uniformly  eight  feet  apart,  and  the 
distance  between  the  vines  varied  to  suit  their  vigor.  The 
less  vigorous  varieties,  like  Delaware  and  Catawba,  may  be 
planted  7  or  8  feet  apart,  while  the  stronger-growing  vari- 
eties, like  Worden  and  Concord,  may  be  set  9  or  10  feet 
apart.  When  planted  on  sloping  ground,  the  rows  should  be 
run  at  right  angles  to  the  slope.     Where  the  slope  is  suf- 


The  Grajpe.  131 

-ficieutly  steep  to  require  surface  drainage,  an  occasional 
row  should  be  omitted  to  give  room  for  drains.  The  vines 
may  be  planted  in  spring  or  autumn,  but  in  the  latter 
case  the  tops  should  be  covered  with  earth  until  spring. 
The  canes  should  be  cut  back  to  2  or  3  buds  at  planting, 
and  by  whatever  method  the  vines  are  to  be  trained,  the 
strongest  shoots  should  be  tied  upright  to  a  stake  the  first 
season,  all  other  shoots  being  rubbed  off  as  they  appear. 

190.  Fruiting  habit.  The  grape  vine  fruits  chiefly  on 
shoots  from  the  preceding  season's  growth.  Blossoms  ap- 
pear at  a  few  of  the  more  proximal  buds  of  such  shoots 
soon  after  growth  starts  in  spring.  Other  blossoms  often 
appear  later,  farther  out  on  the  shoots,  but  these  later  flow- 

-ers  are  probably  formed  in  spring,  and  seldom  mature 
fruit.  Shoots  from  wood  two  or  more  years  old  may  also 
blossom,  but  these  seldom  mature  good  bunches.  The 
grape,  unlike  the  tree  fruits,  produces  no  distinguishable 
flower  buds,  but  the  embryo  leaves  and  flowers  are  enclosed 
within  the  same  bud  scales. 

The  vine  commonly  begins  bearing  at  three  years  after 
planting,  and  should  produce  one  or  two  bunches  on  each 
shoot  that  is  permitted  to  grow. 

191.  Pruning  and  training.  The  grape  vine  is  a  rampant 
grower  and  in  its  wild  state  climbs  upon  trees,  fruiting  on 
its  outermost  branches.  In  culture,  we  are  compelled  to 
restrict  this  rampant  growth;  hence  severe  cutting  back  is 
necessary,  and  some  method  of  pruning  must  be  employed 
that  produces  annually  a  number  of  vigorous  canes  near  the 
base  of  the  vine.  The  European  grape  fruits  freely  in  many 
countries  when  the  new  growth  is  permitted  to  spread  upon 
the  ground,  but  the  American  species  are  satisfactory  only 
when  the  young  shoots  are  supported  upon  a  suitable  trellis. 


132  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

Pnming  refers  to  the  removal  of  parts  of  the  vine.  Train- 
ing refers  to  the  placing  upon  the  trellis  of  the  parts  that 
are  left. 

A  growing,  leafy  branch  of  the  grape  vine  is  commonly 
called  a  sJioot.  A  ripened  shoot  is  called  a  cane.  A  branch 
two  or  more  years  old  is  called  an  arm.  A  branch  of  an 
arm  older  than  a  cane  is  called  a  spur. 

A  shoot  normally  starts  in  spring  from  each  bud  of  last 
year's  wood,  and  continues  to  grow  throughout  the  sum- 
mer. At  each  leaf  of  the  shoot  a  bud  is  normally  pro- 
duced, from  which  new  fruit-beariug  shoots  may  grow  the 
next  spring.  If  all  these  buds  were  allowed  to  remain,  the 
vine  would  produce  the  next  season  more  flower  clusters 
than  it  could  properly  mature,  which  would  result  in  a 
large  number  of  poorly-developed  bunches,  and  a  weak- 
ened vine.  The  canes  are  therefore  cut  back  until  they 
bear  only  as  many  buds  as  experience  has  show^n  the  vine 
can  properly  develop.  The  number  of  buds  that  should  be 
left  will  depend  upon  the  variety,  the  age  aud  vigor  of  the 
vine,  the  character  and  exposure  of  the  soil,  the  cultivation 
given  and  the  method  of  pruning  and  training  adopted. 
Experience  must  be  the  chief  guide.  A  mature  vine  of  the 
Concord  grape,  which  is  a  vigorous  and  prolific  variety, 
planted  9  or  10  feet  from  its  neighbors,  on  good  soil,  with 
favorable  exposure,  pruned  and  trained  by  any  of  the  ordi- 
nary systems,  will  usually  develop  30  to  60  clusters  weigh- 
ing one-fourth  to  half  a  pound  eacli.  It  follows  that 
such  a  vine  should  have  from  15  to  30  bearing  shoots,  and 
hence  should  be  cut  back  at  the  annual  pruning  to  from  15 
to  30  buds,  the  number  depending  on  the  health  and  vigor 
of  the  vine.  All  the  wood  of  the  previous  season's  growth 
is  therefore  cut  away,  except  sufficient  to  contain  15  to  30 


The  Grape.  133 

buds.  The  properly-pruned  vine  does  not,  therefore,  in- 
crease in  size  in  proportion  to  the  annual  growth,  as  do 
most  other  perennial  plants.  These  buds  may  be  left  on 
one  or  more  canes  according  to  the  method  of  pruning  em- 
ployed. A  vine  that  completely  covered  the  trellis  in 
autumn  will  need  to  be  cut  back  to  one  rather  long  cane, 
or  two  or  more  shorter  canes. 

192.  Methods  of  training:.  It  is  important  that  the  op- 
erations of  pruning  and  training  be  kept  distinct  in  the 
mind.  In  the  winter  or  sin-ing  pruning,  the  vine  may  be 
cut  back  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  only  the  ripened 
shoots  of  the  previous  year  {canes)  (191)  for  producing  the 
next  season's  crop,  or  wood  older  than  that  of  the  preced- 
ing year  {arms),  with  stubs  of  younger  wood  {spurs\  may  be 
left;  or  a  combination  of  canes,  arms  and  spurs  may  be 
left,  and  all  of  these  methods  of  pruning  may  be  used  with 
any  system  of  training. 

Numerous  more  or  less  distinct  methods  of  training  have 
been  practiced  and  described,  but  all  may  be  referred  to 
two  classes,  viz.:  the  uprkjlit  methods,  in  which  the  shoots 
are  tied  to  the  trellis  above  the  cane,  arm  or  spur  whence 
they  grow;  and  the  drooping  methods,  in  which  the  shoots 
are  not  tied  to  the  trellis,  but  hang  from  the  cane,  arm,  or 
spur.  The  upright  methods  are  more  numerous  than  the 
drooping  methods  and  have  been  longer  in  use.  They  are 
somewhat  more  expensive  in  practice  since  the  shoots  re- 
quire to  be  tied. 

193.  The  singfle-post  method  is  the  simplest  kind  of 
upright  training.  In  this,  the  canes  and  shoots  are  all  tied 
to  a  single  post  set  near  the  base  of  the  vine.  The  merits 
of  this  method  are  its  cheapness  and  that  it  admits  cultiva- 
tion of  the  vineyard  in  both  directions.     It  does  not  give 


134  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing, 

sufiBcient  room  for  the  development  either  of  foliage  or 
bunches,  and  probably  favors  certain  fungous  diseases  by 
obstructing  free  circulation  of  air  about  the  fruit. 

In  the  other  upright  systems,  two  canes  or  arms  are 
tied  to  the  lower  wire  or  bar  of  the  trellis,  so  as  to  ex- 
tend in  opposite  directions,  and  from  these  the  shoots 
are  tied  to  the  trellis  as  they  attain  sufficient  length.  The 
older  methods  of  this  class  of  training  employed  arms 
which  continued  from  year  to  year,  and  the  shoots  were 
annually  cut  back  to  one  or  two  buds  (spurs).  By  this 
method,  a  considerable  part  of  the  vine  remained  from 
year  to  year;  and  since  shoots  grown  from  old  wood  are 
usually  unproductive,  the  fruitfulness  of  the  vine  could 
only  be  maintained  by  permitting  the  spurs  to  become 
longer  at  each  cutting  back.  This  is  objectionable  be- 
cause it  annually  reduces  the  room  on  the  trellis.  To 
avoid  these  objections,  a  method  has  been  adopted  by 
which  strong  canes  are  substituted  for  the  horizontal  arms, 
thus  renewing  the  entire  vine  each  season,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  trunk  and  a  few  spurs  at  its  summit. 

194.  The  high  renewal  method,  which  is  now  exten- 
sively employed,  starts  the  head  or  branches  of  the  vine 
18  to  30  inches  from  the  ground,  the  lower  wire  or  bar  o£ 
the  trellis  being  placed  at  this  height.  For  training  by 
this  method,  the  single  strong  cane  secured  from  the  young 
vine  at  the  end  of  the  first  or  second  year  after  planting, 
is  cut  back  in  autumn  to  the  height  of  the  lower  wire  or 
bar  of  the  trellis.  The  next  spring  (the  second  year  of 
training)  two  shoots  are  permitted  to  grow  from  the  up- 
permost buds  on  this  cut-back  cane,  and  all  other  buds  are 
rubbed  off.  These  two  shoots  are  tied  to  the  lower  arm  of 
the  trellis  and  are  permitted  to  grow  upward  without 
pinching  during  the  season,  being  tied  to  the  upper  wires 


The  Grape, 


135 


as  they  acquire  sufficient  length.  In  autumn,  these  canes 
are  cut  back  to  firm  and  strong  wood,  which  will  us u ally- 
leave  them  bearing  from  5  to  S  buds  each.  The  following 
spring  (the  third  season  of  training)  these  canes  are  tied 
to  the  lower  wire  of  the  trellis,  and  the  shoots  which  grow 
from  the  nodes  of  these  canes  are  tied  to  the  upper  wires 
as  they  gain  sufficient  length,  and  are  permitted  to  take 
care  of  themselves  after  passing  the  uppermost  wire. 
(Fig.  37.)    In  the  stronger  varieties,  they  often  lop  over 


Fig.  37.    Grape  vine  trained  by  high-renewal  system.    (From  Bailey's 
"Pruning  Book.") 

and  reach  the  ground  late  in  the  season,  but  they  should 
not  be  cut  off  unless  the  needs  of  cultivation  demand  it, 
and  then  the  cutting  should  be  delayed  as  long  as  possi- 
ble. These  upright  shoots  may  be  Expected  to  bear  1  or  2 
bunches  each,  the  number  depending  upon  the  variety 
and  the  vigor  of  the  vine.  Thus  the  vine  commences  to 
bear  fruit  the  third  year  of  training. 

The  pruning  at  the  close  of  the  third  season  will  consist 
in  cutting  off  both  of  the  horizontal  canes  from  which  the 
upright  shoots  grew,  as  near  the  trunk  of  the  vine  as  pos- 
sible and  yet  leave  two  of  the  stronger  upright  shoots 
(which  have  now  become  canes)  as  near  the  top  of  the 
trunk  as  possible.  This  reduces  the  wood  at  once  to  two 
strong  canes  which  have  their  origin  near  the  top  of  the 


136  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

trunk.     These  canes  are  now  cut  back  to  strong  and  sound 
wood,  and  the  process  of  the  preceding  year  is  repeated. 

This  method  of  training  requires  the  production  of  two 
strong  canes  near  the  top  of  the  trunk  each  season.  But 
as  a  portion  of  the  wood  of  the  preceding  year  must  be  left 
at  each  cutting  back,  spurs  are  soon  formed  at  the  top  of 
the  trunk.  It  often  happens  that  neither  of  the  canes 
starting  from  these  spurs  is  strong  enough  for  laying  down 
as  a  main-  cane  the  next  spring.  In  this  case,  the  nearest 
cane  to  the  trunk  that  is  sufficiently  strong  is  chosen,  and 
the  weaker  cane  near  the  top  of  the  trunk  is  cut  back  to 
two  buds,  from  which  strong  shoots  may  be  expected  to 
grow  the  following  season. 

As  the  vine  acquires  age,  a  strong  shoot  may  be  trained 
up  from  the  base  from  time  to  time  and  treated  precisely 
as  a  young  vine.  The  second  year  thereafter,  the  old  vine 
may  be  cut  awaj'  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  the 
younger  trunk  trained  to  take  its  place. 

195.  The  Kniffen  system.  The  principal  drooping 
method  of  training  was  first  used  by  one  William  Knitfen 
in  the  Hudson  River 
valley  about  1854,  and 
hence  has  received  his 
name.  The  original 
Kniffen  system  em- 
ployed a  trellis  with 
two    wires    only,    of 

which  the  lower  wire       F^«-  ^^^    ^''^P^  ^'^^  trained  by  Kniffen  system. 

Tlie  cross-marks  show  where  the  branches  should 

was  usually  placed  3^    be  cut  off  in  pruning.     (From  Bailey's  "Pruning 

feet  from  the  ground  Book.") 

and  the  upper  about  2  feet  above  this.  A  single  stem  or  trunk 
of  the  vine  is  carried  directly  to  the  top  wire  and  two  canes 
are  trained  outward  from  side  spurs  at  each  wire  (Fig.  38). 


The  G> 


'a_pt 


137 


Thus  the  vine  has  four  horizontal  canes  tied  to  two  wires 
instead  of  two  tied  to  one  wire  as  in  the  method  previously 
described.  These  canes  are  at  such  a  distance  from  the 
ground  that  shoots  growing  from  them  hang  down  instead 
of  growing  upright,  and  hence  require  no  tying.  Thus 
the  labor  of  caring  for  the  viues  during  sumuier  is  greatly 
lessened. 

The  pruning  of  vines  trained  by  the  KniflFen  system  is 
very  similar  to  that  in  the  upright  method  described.  All 
is  cut  away  save  the  four  canes  which  hang  nearest  the 
trunk.  These  four  canes  are  then  cut  back  to  strong  wood 
and  are  tied  to  the  wires  the  following  spring  (Pig.  39). 

In  case  the  canes  nearest  the  triuik  are  not  strong  enough 
for  main  canes,  they  may  be  cut  back  to  one  or  two  buds 

(spurs),  and  the  next 
cane  used  that  is 
sufficiently  strong. 
The  following  sea- 
son, the  shoots 
growing  from  these 
spurs   may    be    ex- 

FiG.  39.     Tlie  vine  shown  in  Fig.  38  after  pruning.     I'^ctcd     tO     regain 
(From  Bailey's  "Pruning  Book.")  their  vigOr.      As  the 

vine  acquires  age,  it  is  customary  to  prune  the  canes  tied  to 
the  upper  wire  longer  than  the  lower  ones.  In  strong  varie- 
ties like  Worden,  each  of  the  upper  canes  may  bear  ]0 
buds,  and  each  of  the  lower  ones  5,  which  gives  30  buds  to 
the  vine. 

Vines  pruned  by  the  Kniifen  system  are  commonly 
grown  to  stakes  the  first  two  seasons,  and  the  canes  are  put 
upon  the  trellis  the  third  season.  The  vine  is  usually  car- 
ried directly  to  the  top  wire  the  first  season  of  training, 


138  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

thougli  some  growers  stop  the  trunk  at  the  lower  wire  the 
third  season,  carrying  it  !;o  the  top  wire  the  following 
year. 

196.  When  to  prune.  The  annual  pruning  maybe  per- 
formed at  any  time  after  the  leaves  mature,  until  frost 
leaves  the  ground  in  spring.  In  severe  climates,  where 
winter  protection  is  necessary,  the  pruning  is  best  per- 
formed before  the  grapes  are  laid  down  for  winter.  The 
work  is  commonly  done  with  small  pruning  shears. 

I9t.  Summer  pruning:.  Whatever  method  of  pruning 
is  adopted,  more  or  less  attention  is  required  during  sum- 
mer to  prevent  the  growth  of  superfluous  shoots.  Weak 
shoots  often  start  out  at  the  base  of  the  main  shoots,  or  of 
the  trunk;  these  should  be  promptly  rubbed  off,  unless 
needed  for  a  special  purpose.  The  flower  clusters  usually 
need  more  or  less  thinning.  Three  or  more  are  often 
formed  on  a  single  shoot,  while  one  or  two  good  bunches 
are  all  that  one  shoot  should  be  expected  to  develop,  ex- 
cept in  the  most  vigorous  varieties. 

198.  Trellises  for  the  grape.  The  most  common  trellises 
in  use  consist  of  one  or  more  wires  attached  horizontally 
to  posts  set  midway  between  each  alternate  two  vines. 
Except  in  very  hard  and  stony  land,  all  the  posts  are  com- 
monly driven  but  the  end  ones,  which  are  usually  set.  For 
the  upright  methods,  the  posts  should  reach  5  or  5^  feet 
above  the  soil;  for  the  KniflFen  system  they  should  reach  a 
foot  higher.  The  posts  should  stand  a  little  higher  at  first 
than  is  necessary  for  the  support  of  the  wires,  for  they  will 
need  to  be  driven  down  occasionally  as  they  become  loose. 
The  end  posts  of  each  trellis  should  be  well  braced.  Plain 
No.  12  wire  is  commonly  used,  except  for  the  top  wire  in 
the  Kniffen  training,  which  is  usually  No.  10.     The  wires 


The  Grape.  139 

are  generally  wound  once  around  the  end  posts  and  their 
ends  secured  by  staples,  or  bent  around  the  wire  forming  a 
loop.  They  are  secured  to  the  intermediate  posts  by  staples 
driven  in  far  enough  so  that  the  wire  will  not  pull  through 
readily,  but  not  so  firmly  as  to  prevent  tightening  the 
wires.  In  windy  regions  the  wires  should  be  placed  upon 
the  windward  side  of  the  posts.  It  is  generally  found 
necessary  to  tighten  the  wires  and  posts  as  they  become 
loose,  and  it  is  wise  to  tamp  the  ground  about  the  posts 
each  spring. 

For  upright  training,  the  trellis  is  usually  begun  the  fall 
or  winter  following  the  planting  of  the  vineyard.  With 
the  Kniffen  system  it  may  be  delayed  a  year  longer. 

199.  Tying.  Raffia,  wool  twine,  osier  willows,  green  rye 
straw,  corn  husks  and  bass-wood  bark  are  all  used  for  tying. 
Of  these,  raffia  is  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory,  though 
more  expensive  than  some  of  the  others,  A  stronger  ma- 
terial is  needed  for  tying  the  canes  to  the  wires  in  the 
spring  than  for  summer  tying. 

It  is  important  that  the  canes  be  tied  to  the  wires  early 
in  spring,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  buds  by  the  moving  of 
the  canes  by  the  wind.  These  canes  should  be  tied  firmly, 
but  the  shoots  tied  during  the  summer  may  be  fastened 
more  loosely. 

200.  Harmful  insects.  While  the  grape  is  more  or  less 
injured  by  a  number  of  insects,  few  of  these  are  sufficiently 
destructive  in  this  country  to  require  special  notice.  The 
phylloxera  {Phylloxera  vastatrix),  so  destructive  to  the  Eu- 
ropean grape,  is  but  slightly  injurious  to  our  native  species. 
The  foliage  is  more  or  less  injured  by  several  large  beetles 
and  caterpillars,  but  as  these  seldom  appear  in  large  numbers, 
and  are  rather  conspicuous,  they  are  readily  controlled. 


140  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

201.  The  rose  beetle  {MacrodacUjlus  subspinosus)  (Fig. 
40)  is  sometimes  very  destructive  to  the  foliage  of  the 
grape  in  early  summer.  While  it  eats 
the  foliage  voraciously,  it  is  not  readily 
destroyed  by  poisons  sprayed  upon  the 
leaves.  As  the  beetles  are  naturally  slug- 
gish, they  are  easily  shaken  from  the  vines  fig.  4c.  Rose  beetle, 
upon  sheets  in  the  early  morning,  as  de-  natural  size.  (After 
scribed  for  the  plum  curculio  (99).  sauaders.) 

202.  The  grape-vine  leaf-hopper  {Eri/throueura  vitis), 
improperly  known  among  grape  growers  as  the  "  thrip  " 
(Fig.  41),  is  often  injurious  to  the  foliage  of  the  grape  late 
in  summer.     It  is  a 

small  insect  of  the  ^^^^W^    A^kvo^i^^        vi 
sucking    class    and   C^^^^^SKb^^^^       Ji^i 
works  chiefly  on  the 
lower    side    of  the 
leaves.     The  conse- 
quent exhaustion  of 

the  sap  causes  yel-  Fig.  41.  Grape-vine  leaf -hopper,  enlarged;  nat- 
lowish  or  brownish    ^^^al  size  indicated  by  short  lines.    (After  Saunders.) 

spots  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves,  which  later  increase  in 
size,  often  covering  the  whole  surface.  In  a  severe  attack, 
the  foliage  over  an  entire  vineyard  may  appear  as  if 
scorched  and  may  even  drop,  thus  greatly  retarding  or  pre- 
venting the  ripening  of  the  fruit. 

This  insect  is  rather  difficult  to  control  owing  to  its 
quick  movements.  Thorough  spraying  with  dilute  kero- 
sene, taking  care  to  wet  both  sides  of  the  leaves,  will  de- 
stroy vast  numbers  of  them.  As  they  are  attracted  by 
light,  many  may  be  destroyed  by  carrying  lighted  torches 
through  the  vineyard,  and  disturbing   the  foliage  to  dis- 


The  Grape.  141 

lodge  them.  As  the  insects  pass  the  winter  under  dead 
leaves  and  other  rubbish,  many  may  be  destroyed  by  rak- 
ing these  materials  from  the  vineyard  late  in  autumn  or 
early  in  spring. 

203.  The  principal  fungous  diseases  attacking  the  grape 
are  the  black  rot  {La'stadia  B'uUccJlil),  the  downy  mildew 
{Peronospem  viticola),  the  powdery  mildew  {Undnida  spi- 
ralis) and  the  anthracnose  {Sphaceloma  ainpelinum).  These 
all  attack  both  the  foliage  and  the  fruit,  and  are  propagated 
by  spores  deposited  on  these  parts.  They  are  often  very 
destructive  unless  prevented  by  timely  treatments. 

204.  The  black  rot  is  one  of  the  most  serious  diseases  of 
the  grape,  especially  in  the  south.  Some  of  the  symptoms 
on  the  shoots  are  dark,  oval,  slightly-sunken  areas,  of 
which  the  centers  are  thickly  studded  with  very  small 
pimples.  The  affected  parts  of  the  leaves  are  generally  be- 
tween the  veins,  have  rounded  outlines  and  are  of  a  dark, 
reddish-brown  color.  The  fruits  are  commonly  attacked 
when  nearly  or  quite  full-grown.  The  part  affected  is 
blackened  and  characteristic  pimples  appear;  the  berry 
shrivels  and  becomes  strongly  ridged  and  the  seeds  project 
prominently  under  the  drawn  skin;  the  entire  berry  is 
then  black,  with  minute  elevations  thickly  scattered  over 
it.  In  warm,  moist  weather  the  disease  progresses  very 
rapidly,  greatly  reducing  the  crop  in  a  few  days.  Individ- 
ual berries  in  the  cluster  often  escape  harm. 

Preventive  measures.  Three  thorough  sprayings  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  the  first  beginning  as  soon  as  the  ear- 
lier leaves  are  expanded,  the  second  after  the  vines  have 
blossomed,  and  the  third  2  to  4  weeks  later,  largely  prevent 
the  attack.  If  the  weather  is  warm  and  wet,  later  spray- 
ings, 10  to  14  days  apart,  will  be  necessary.    After  the  ber- 


142  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

ries  are  tliree-fourths  grown,  ammoniacal  solution  of  cop- 
per carbonate  is  preferable  to  Bordeaux  mixture,  as  it 
stains  the  fruit  less.'  In  the  north,  where  the  attacks  are 
not  so  severe,  the  treatments  need  not  begin  until  July  1st, 
and  two  later  sprayings  at  intervals  of  2  or  3  weeks  usu- 
ally prevent  damage. 

205.  The  downy  mildew,  also  called  brown  rot  and  gray 
rot,  is  more  common  than  the  black  rot  in  the  northern 
states.  Like  the  latter,  it  is  most  serious  in  warm,  wet 
seasons.  Some  of  its  symptoais  are  light-green  patches 
upon  both  sides  of  the  leaves,  which  later  become  yellow, 
and  still  later  change  to  brown.  As  the  spots  become  yel- 
low upon  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  a  frost-like  substance 
projects  from  the  discolored  part  on  the  under  side.  The 
affectioQ  of  the  leaf  is  often  accompanied  by  brown, 
slightly-sunken  areas  on  the  shoots.  The  fruit  is  often 
attacked,  if  at  all,  before  the  berries  are  half-grown.  Af- 
fected berries  first  become  brown  and  later  are  covered 
with  a  whitish  powder. 

Treatment.  In  localities  subject  to  this  disease,  an  ap- 
plication of  Bordeaux  mixture  should  be  made  when  the 
shoots  have  grown  6  to  10  inches,  to  be  followed  by  a  sec- 
ond application  after  the  vines  have  blossomed,  and  later 
sprayings  should  succeed  each  other  at  intervals  of  2  to  4 
weeks,  depending  upon  the  season.  The  later  treatments 
may  be  made  with  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbon- 
ate to  prevent  staining  the  fruit. 

206.  The  powdery  mildew  develops  most  rapidly  in 
rather  dry  weather.  It  is  a  surface-growing  fungus  which 
appears  mainly  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves,  form- 

'  Directions  for  making  Bordeaux  mixture  and  ammoniacal  solution  of  cop- 
per carbonate  are  given  in  "Principles  of  Plant  Culture," 


The  Grape.  143 

ing  wliitisli  patches  from  which  the  mildew  maybe  rubbed 
off,  disclosing  brown  tissue  beneath.  Similar  spots  appear 
upon  affected  berries. 

Treatment  for  this  disease  may  be  postponed  until  the 
symptoms  appear.  Bordeaux  mixture  or  ammoniacal  solu- 
tion of  copper  carbonate,  sprayed  upon  the  affected  parts, 
usually  prevents  serious  damage. 

207'.  Anthracnose  is  often  very  destructive  to  the  grape. 
It  may  appear  any  time  during  the  growing  season,  but 
most  commonly  affects  the  berries  during  the  middle  and 
latter  part  of  summer.  The  shoots  are  commonly  attacked, 
and  the  first  indication  of  the  disease  is  a  darkening  and 
sinking  of  small,  oval  areas  extending  lengthwise  of  the 
stem.  These  may  be  very  numerous,  giving  the  shoots  a 
speckled  appearance.  The  spots  gradually  enlarge  and  the 
center  assumes  a  gray  color,  while  the  dark  edges  take  on 
a  more  or  less  decided  tinge  of  purple.  In  severe  cases,  the 
shoot  may  be  wholly  destroyed.  Upon  the  leaf,  the  disease 
usually  attacks  the  veins  and  leaf-stems,  producing  similar 
marks  to  those  upon  the  shoots,  but  with  a  reddish-brown 
color.  The  disease  also  often  girdles  the  stems  of  the  clus- 
ters, causing  an  affection  known  as  "  ring-around."  The 
berries  below  this  ring  do  not  ripen  and  gradually  shrivel. 
On  the  berries  the  attack  is  marked  by  circular,  sunken, 
brown  spots,  bordered  with  red  or  purple. 

Treatment.  The  vines  and  trellises  may  be  washed  dur- 
ing winter  or  early  spring  with  a  solution  of  sulfuric  acid 
and  sulfate  of  iron,  consisting  of  one  hundred  parts  of  hot 
water,  in  which  is  placed  as  much  iron  sulfate  as  the  water 
will  dissolve,  and  one  part  of  sulfuric  acid.  This  solution, 
which  is  very  caustic,  is  applied  with  a  swab  of  rags  tied 
about  the  end  of  a  stick.  The  solution  blackens  the  treated 


144  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

parts,  hence  the  color  of  the  latter  is  a  test  of  the  thorough- 
ness of  the  work.  Applications  of  Bordeaux  uiixture  dur- 
ing summer  for  other  diseases  are  also  beneficial  in  prevent- 
ing anthracnose. 

208.  Harvesting  and  packing.  The  fruit  of  the  grape 
does  not  improve  in  quality  after  it  is  removed  from  the 
vine,  hence  it  should  not  be  gathered  until  as  mature  as  it 
will  become  in  the  climate  in  which  it  is  grown. 

The  fruit  should  be  picked  only  when  dry.  The  picker 
should  take  the  cluster  by  the  stem,  cutting  it  off  with  a 
pair  of  shears  and  placing  it  in  the  picking  tray  with  the 
least  possible  touching  of  the  fruit  (16). 

The  grapes  should  be  removed  directly  from  the  picking 
tray  to  the  market  package,  all  imi^erfect  berries  being 
taken  off  in  the  meantime.  Grapes  are  commonly  packed 
in  the  so-called  ''  Climax"  basket,  which  is  made  of  vari- 
ous styles  and  sizes  (Fig.  25).  In  packing,  the  greatest 
care  should  be  used  to  keep  the  fruit  clean  and  fresh,  to 
prevent  the  bunches  from  being  broken  and  to  preserve 
the  bloom. 

Grapes  intended  for  long  keeping  should  be  stored  in  a 
moderately  dry  apartment  in  which  the  temperature  is 
uniform  and  rather  low.  The  grapes  should  be  as  nearly 
as  possible  of  the  temperature  of  the  room  when  placed  in 
it.  Ventilation  should  be  given  only  on  dry  days  and 
when  the  outside  temperature  differs  little  from  that  of  the 
room. 

209.  Winter  protection  of  the  grape  vine  is  essential  in 
climates  having  severe  winters.  This  is  accomplished  by 
laying  the  pruned  vine  upon  the  ground  and  covering  it 
with  soil,  straw  or  corn  stalks.  The  former  is  most  com- 
monly used,  as  it  is  cheapest,  and  does  not  attract  mice. 


Summary  of  the  Preceding  Chapter.  145 

To  prevent  breaking  the  stem,  a  little  earth  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  roots  at  the  base  of  the  trunk  in  order  that 
the  strain  of  bending  may  come  chiefly  on  the  roots. 

SUMMAKT   OF   THE   PKECEDING  CHAPTER 

1.  The  grapes  now  grown  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada are  chiefl}''  of  American  origin.  The  European  grape 
is  grown  extensively  in  the  far  southwest  (186), 

2.  The  grape  requires  a  w^arm  and  pi'olonged  summer 
temperature.  In  the  north,  a  southern  exposure,  free  from 
untimel}^  frosts,  and  a  perfectly-drained,  light,  loamy  soil 
are  most  favorable  (187). 

3.  The  grape  is  mostly  propagated  by  cuttings  or  layers. 
Root  grafting  is  practiced  in  some  localities;  crown  graft- 
ing is  little  practiced  (188). 

4.  The  grape  is  commonly  planted  in  rows,  7  or  8  feet 
apart,  the  vines  being  set  7  to  10  feet  apart  in  the  row. 
The  soil  should  be  of  moderate  fertility  and  well  prepared 
(189). 

5.  The  grape  vine  fruits  chiefly  on  young  shoots  from 
wood  formed  the  preceding  season.  It  commonly  begins 
fruiting  the  third  year  after  planting  (190). 

6.  The  grape  vine,  being  a  rampant  grower,  must  be  se- 
verely pruned.  The  American  varieties  fruit  well  only 
when  the  stems  are  trained  upon  a  suitable  trellis  (191). 

7.  The  different  methods  of  training  the  grape  vine  may 
be  reduced  to  two,  viz.,  the  upright  methods,  in  which  the 
stems  are  tied  low  on  the  trellis,  and  the  shoots  are  tied 
above,  as  they  grow;  and  the  drooping  methods,  in  which 
the  stems  are  tied  high  on  the  trellis,  and  the  shoots  are 
permitted  to  hang  from  them  (192). 

8.  The  most  important  upright  training  method  is  the 

10 


146  Lessons  in  Fruit  Grovnng. 

*'  high  renewal"  (194);  the  most  important  drooping  method 
is  the  "  Kniffen  "  (195). 

9.  The  annual  pruning  of  the  grape  vine  may  be  per- 
formed any  time  from  the  maturing  of  the  leaves  in  au- 
tumn until  frost  leaves  the  ground  in  spring  (196).  Sum- 
mer pruning  is  also  needed  (197). 

10.  The  trellis  most  in  use  for  the  grape  consists  of  one 
or  more  wires  attached  horizontally  to  posts  set  midway 
between  each  alternate  two  vines  (198). 

11.  The  principal  insect  enemies  to  the  grape  vine  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  are  the  grape-vine  leaf- 
hopper  and  the  rose  beetle.  The  former  is  held  in  check 
by  spraying  with  dilute  kerosene,  by  carrying  lighted 
torches  through  the  vineyard  at  night,  and  by  removing  the 
fallen  leaves,  etc.,  baneath  the  vines  in  late  autumn.  The 
latter  insect  may  be  destroyed  as  recommended  for  the  plum 
curculio  (201,  202). 

12.  The  principal  fungous  diseases  attacking  the  grape 
are  the  black  rot,  downy  mildew,  powdery  mildew  and 
anthracnose.  The  first  three  are  prevented  by  spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture;  the  fourth,  by  washing  the  vines 
and  trellises  in  winter  or  early  spring  with  a  solution  of 
sulfuric  acid  and  sulfate  of  iron  in  water  (203,  207). 

13.  Grapes  should  be  gathered  when  dry  and  fully  ma- 
ture, with  the  least  possible  touching  of  the  fruit.  They 
are  commonly  packed  in  the  Climax  basket  (208). 

14.  The  grape  vine  may  be  protected  in  winter  by  cover- 
ing the  stems  with  earth  (209). 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  LABORATORY   WORK 

1.  Ascertain  the  different  species  of  grape  that  grow 
wild  in  your  vicinity. 


Suggestions  for  Lahoratory  Work.  147 

2.  Practice  propagating  the  grape  vine  by  cuttings,  lay- 
ers and  grafting,  so  far  as  the  season  permits. 

3.  Practice  pruning  the  grape,  for  different  systems  of 
training,  both  on  young  and  bearing  vines,  so  far  as  the 
season  admits. 

4.  Practice  training  the  grape  by  one  or  more  of  the 
upright  and  drooping  systems. 

5.  Study  the  diseases  of  the  grape  vine  and  apply  the 
preventives  given,  so  far  as  practicable. 

6.  Practice  packing  the  grape  in  baskets,  if  the  season 
permits. 

7.  Practice  crossing  diflPerent  varieties  and  species  of  the 
grape  vine,  so  far  as  the  season  permits. 


148 


Lessons  in  Fri:it  Growing. 


CHAPTER  ly 

THE  SMALL  FRUITS 

210.  The  small  fruits,  so-called,  include  several  fruit 
plants  of  which  the  fruits  are  small  in  size  and  grow  upon 
shrubs  or  herbaceous  plants.  The  term  is  a  cultural  one 
and  has  no  reference  to  botanical  characters.  It  includes 
the  fruits  that  are  called  in  common  parlance  "  berries  " 
and  also  the  currant.  For  convenience  we  sub-divide  the 
small  fruits  into  (a)  the  brambles,  including  the  raspberry, 
blackberry  and  dewberry;  (b)  the  (jroselles,  including  the 
currant  and  gooseberry;  (c)  the  strawberry;  (d)  the  cran- 
berry and  (e)  a  miscellaneous  group,  including  all  others 
commonly  classed  with  the  small  fruits. 

211.  Picking:  and  packing.  With  the  exception  of  the 
cranberry  (273),  the  small  fruits  are  commonly  marketed  in 
small  baskets  or  boxes  holding  about  a  quart  or  a  pint 
(Fig.  42).     These  are  packed  in  cases  or  crates  to  the  num- 


FiG.  42.    Berry  box  and  the  two  pieces  of  which  it  is  made.    A,  complete  box; 
b,  piece  forming  the  bottom;  c,  piece  forming  the  sides. 

ber  of  16,  24,  32  or  48  in  each  (Fig.  43).     The  boxes  and 
crates  are  commonly  purchased  in   the   "  knock-down " 


The  Small  Fruits. 


149 


form,  i.  e.,  tlie  parts  not  set  up  or  nailed  together,  and  are 
put  in  shape  for  use  on  the  fruit  plantation.  Stapling  ma- 
chines are  used  by  large  growers  for  nailing  up  the  boxes. 
Boys,  girls  and  women  are  generally  employed  for  pick- 
ing the  small  fruits. 


Fig.  43.    Case  or  crate  in  which  the  filled  boxes  are  marketed. 
The  empty  boxes  are  commonly  placed  in  the  case  bottom  upward. 

The  fruits  are  commonly  picked  directly  into  the  boxes 
in  which  they  are  marketed,  but  one  quality  being  made 
though  strawberries  are  sometimes  assorted  during  picking 
into  two  grades.  All  leaves,  straws  or  dirt  must  be  kept 
out  of  the  boxes  in  picking,  and  the  pickers  must  be  com- 
pelled to  keep  their  own  rows.  The  boxes  are  carried  in 
the  field  in  light,  handled  trays  holding  4  or  6  boxes,  and 
for  the  bramble  fruits,  a  small  frame,  in  which  a  box  may 
be  placed,  attached  to  a  belt,  is  sometimes  buckled  about 
the  waist,  to  enable  the  use  of  both  hands  in  picking. 

The  pickers  are  commonly  paid  by  the  box,  though  some 
growers  prefer  to  pay  by  the  day  or  hour.  When  paid  by 
the  box,  the  accounts  with  the  pickers  may  be  kept  by 
giving  each  picker  a  printed  ticket  on  which  a  number 
corresponds  to  the  number  of  filled  boxes  delivered,  or  each 
picker  may  be  given  a  card,  with  his  name  written  on  it, 
on  which  the  number  of  filled  boxes  delivered  by  the  picker 


150  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

may  be  punched  by  the  foreman  with  a  conductor's  punch. 
In  settling  with  the  pickers,  the  tickets  or  cards  are  re- 
tained by  the  foreman. 

A  small,  portable,  canvas-covered  building  or  tent  is  very 
useful  in  the  small-fruit  field,  to  serve  as  a  temporary  shel- 
ter for  the  gathered  fruit  and  for  packing. 

Section  1. — The  Bramble  Fruits. 

212.  The  brambles  are  in  a  sense  intermediate  between 
an  herb  and  a  shrub,  i.  e.,  the  root  is  perennial,  but  the 
stems  die  nearly  back  to  the  crown  the  second  season  of 
their  life,  after  maturing  a  single  crop  of  fruit.  The  stems 
of  the  cultivated  brambles  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  more 
or  less  prickly. 

The  cultivated  brambles  include  the  following  botanical 
species: 

(a)  The  American  red  raspberry  [Rubus  strigosus). 

(b)  The  European  red  raspberry  {Rubus  idceus). 

(c)  The  blackberry  {Rubus  nigrobaccus). 

(d)  The  blackcap  raspberry  {Rubus  occidentalis). 

(e)  The  northern  dewberry  {Rubus  villosus). 

(f)  The  purple-cane  raspberry  {Rubus  neglect  us). 
Rubus  neglectus   is  supposed  to  be  a  hybrid  between 

Rubus  strigosus  and  R.  occidentalis.  A  few  other  species  of 
Rubus  are  cultivated  to  a  slight  extent  in  the  United  States. 

The  common  names  "red"  and  "black,"  as  applied  to 
the  fruit  of  these  species  tend  to  be  misleading,  since  white- 
or  yellow-fruited  varieties  are  known  in  all  of  the  species  ex- 
cept Rubus  neglectus,  and  there  are  two  species  of  raspberry 
in  which  the  fruit  is  commonly  red. 

The  canes  of  the  first  three  species  grow  upright  through- 
out the  season.     Those  of  the  second  three  grow  more  or 


The  Small  Fruits.  151 

less  upright  during  the  first  part  of  the  growing  season, 
but  Liter  the  stems  droop  to  the  earth,  at  least  near  their 
tips,  and  if  the  conditions  are  favorable,  the  tips  take 
root  in  the  soil. 

As  the  methods  of  culture  of  the  different  bramble  fruits 
are  similar,  it  is  convenient  to  treat  them  all  at  the  same 
time. 

213.  Propagation.  Plants  of  the  first  three  species 
above  named  are  readily  propagated  by  suckers  from  the 
roots,  especially  when  the  latter  are  cut. 

Plants  of  the  second  three  species  are,  as  a  rule,  readily 
propagated  by  layering  the  tips  of  the  canes  in  late  sum- 
mer or  early  autumn.  Plants  thus  layered  should  form 
abundant  roots  and  a  strong  bud  before  winter.  The  time 
for  layering  is  indicated  by  the  tips  becoming  slightly 
thickened  and  growing  without  leaves.  On  well-cultivated 
soil,  many  tips  will  root  without  assistance  in  seasons  of 
frequent  rains,  but  the  tips  are  much  more  likely  to  root 
if  covered  with  soil.  After  rooting,  the  parent  stem  may 
be  severed,  and  the  young  plants  taken  up  and  perma- 
nently planted  late  in  the  autumn  or  early  the  following 
spring.  It  is  said  that  better-rooted  plants  of  all  of  the 
species  may  be  obtained  from  cuttings  of  the  roots  an  inch 
or  more  in  length,  started  under  glass  with  mild  bottom 
heat.  These  root  cuttings  are  preferably  made  in  autumn, 
packed  in  sand  in  shallow  boxes  and  stored  for  callusing  in 
a  cool  cellar  until  February  or  March,  when  they  are 
planted  in  the  propagating  bed. 

214.  Planting:.  The  bramble  fruits  are  commonly  planted 
3  or  4  feet  apart,  in  rows  6  or  7  feet  apart.  The  black- 
berry and  the  larger-growing  raspberries  should  be  given 
the  wider  distance.     In  handling  the  young  plauts  care 


152  Xessons  in  Friilt  Growing. 

should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  bud  at  the  crown,  as  growth 
of  the  stem  must  proceed  from  this  bud. 

215.  Fruiting:  habit.  In  the  cultivated  brambles  the 
young  plant,  which  is  commonly  a  bud  offset  from  the 
parent  rather  than  a  seedling,  develops  a  single  shoot  the 
first  season.  The  following  spring,  the  lateral  buds  of  this 
shoot  that  escaped  injury  during  the  winter,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  two  or  three  near  the  base,  grow  out  into  leafy 
branches,  of  which  the  terminal  and  axillary  buds  develop 
into  flowers.  Thus  the  plants  begin  to  fruit  the  second 
year,  but  the  first  crop,  growing  from  a  single  cane,  is 
small.  The  second  crop  ma3'^  be  as  large  as  any  succeeding 
one.  The  flowers  are  followed  by  the  thimble-like,  com- 
posite fruits.  After  these  mature,  the  stem  dies  back  to  the 
basil  buds  above  mentioned,  which  in  the  meantime  have 
developed  into  vigorous  shoots  destined,  in  like  manner,  to 
fruit  and  perish  the  following  season. 

The  fruit  consists  of  a  collection  of  small  drupes  (drupe- 
lets), attached  to  a  common  receptacle.  In  the  blackberry 
and  dewberry,  the  receptacle  separates  from  the  plant  with 
the  ripe  fruit;  in  the  other  species  the  ripe  fruit  separates 
from  the  receptacle. 

216.  Soil  and  culture.  The  bramble  fruits  thrive  on 
any  good  farm  land  and  are  most  continuously  productive 
on  land  that  is  maintained  in  a  moderate  degree  of  fertil- 
ity. On  very  strong  soils,  the  canes  grow  to  excessive 
size  and  yield  proportionately  less  fruit  than  on  moder- 
ately fertile  soil.  The  only  culture  required  is  to  keep  the 
soil  free  from  weeds,  and  the  surface  loose.  In  the  sucker- 
ing  species  (213),  the  superfluous  suckers  should  be  treated 
as  weeds.  Mulching  is  advisable  in  localities  subject  to 
drought  in  summer  and  autumn.     Deep  plowing  between 


The  Small  Fruits.  153 

the  rows  should  be  avoided,  as  it  is  liable  to  cut  off  main 
roots. 

2\X,  Daration  of  the  plantation.  The  plants  of  the 
bramble  fruits  lose  vigor  and  the  crowns  become  very 
large  after  4  or  5  crops  of  fruit  have  matured.  It  is  there- 
fore best  to  renew  the  plantation  once  in  5  or  6  years. 

218.  Pruning:.  As  each  cane  (191)  of  the  bramble  fruits 
develops  one  or  more  shoots  from  near  its  base,  the  num- 
ber of  canes  tends  to  increase  rapidly  a,*!  the  plant  acquires 
age.  It  is  therefore  important  to  tliin  out  the  canes  after 
the  second  year.  The  number  of  canes  to  be  left  depends 
upon  conditions;  probably  3  to  6  would  be  best  for  the 
majority  of  plantations. 

It  is  customary  to  pinch  the  tips  of  the  shoots  of  the 
blackberry  and  blackcap  raspberry  as  they  attain  the 
height  of  12  to  24:  inches  to  induce  a  stocky,  branching 
growth.  Recent  experiments  have  failed  to  demonstrate 
the  importance  of  pinching  the  raspberry,  especially  where 
winter  protection  is  practiced.  The  pinched  canes  bore 
scarcely  enough  more  fruit  to  pay  for  the  labor  of  pinch- 
ing, while  the  expense  of  covering  them  for  winter  was 
much  increased.  Shoots  pinched  lower  than  24  inches 
yielded  no  more  fruit  than  uupinched  ones.  Pinching  un- 
questionably stimulates  the  i)roduction  of  shoots. 

The  dead  fruiting  canes  of  the  bramble  fruits  are  com- 
monly cut  off  and  removed  after  the  berry  harvest  or  before 
the  following  spring.  Where  the  raspberry  cane-borer  (223) 
is  troublesome,  it  is  important  to  remove  and  burn  the  dead 
bearing  canes  soon  after  the  fruiting  season,  to  destroy  anj' 
larvae  they  may  contain;  —  otherwise  experiments  indicate 
that  it  is  better  to  postpone  removing  the  dead  canes  until 
autumn,  or,  in  case  winter  protection  is  not  practiced,  until 
the  succeeding  spring. 


154 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 


219.  Trellising.  The  plants  of  the  bramble  fruits  are 
often  grown  without  staking  or  trellising,  but  some  sup- 
port, to  prevent  the  canes  from  undue  spreading  or  trailing, 
is  desirable,  especially  with  the  blackberry  and  the  black- 
cap raspberry.  For  this  purpose,  a  wire  supported  2  or  3 
feet  high  on  each  side  of  the  row,  upon  short  stakes,  or 
upon  a  horizontal  piece  nailed  to  a  single  post,  is  well 
adapted  (Fig.  44).  The  canes  are  not  tied  to  the  wires,  but 
are  directed  so  that  they 
grow  between  them. 
Where  winter  protec- 
tion is  practiced,  the 
wires  may  be  readily  re- 
moved for  laying  down 
the  canes.  The  cross 
pieces  above  the  wires 
are   to   keep   the  latter     r  .  _ -, 

from  spreading  and  the  /      ---.    /^ 
canes  from  getting  out 
of  place. 

The  canes  of  the  dew-  Fig.  44.  TrelUs  for  the  raspberry  and  black- 
berry are  commonly  per-  hevTy. 
mitted  to  creep  along  the  ground.  Sometimes  the  bearing 
canes  are  supported  on  low,  horizontal  trellises  made  of 
lath,  to  better  expose  the  fruit  to  light  and  to  aid  in 
gathering  it. 

220.-  Winter  protection.  In  climates  where  the  apple 
and  grape  suffer  in  winter,  the  canes  of  the  bramble  fruits 
are  not  fully  hardy  unless  protected  by  a  covering  of  earth 
or  litter.  The  more  common  method  of  winter  protection 
is  similar  to  that  descriljed  for  the  grape  (209). 

221.  Picking  and  packing:.  The  bramble  fruits  con- 
tinue to  improve  in   flavor   until  ripe   enough  to  drop. 


The  Small  Fruits.  155- 

They  should  be  gathered  a  little  before  this  stage  of  ripe- 
ness for  market,  but  raspberries  picked  for  drying  are  often 
allowed  to  remain  on  the  plants  until  they  can  be  jarred 
off  into  a  sort  of  hopper  by  striking  them  lightly  with  an 
instrument  resembling  a  carpet  beater.  In  the  latter  case 
the  dried  berries  are  run  through  a  machine  resembling  a 
fanning  mill  to  separate  them  from  foreign  matters. 

222.  Insects  and  diseases.  As  several  harmful  parasites 
affect  two  or  more  of  the  bramble  fruits,  it  is  convenient  ta 
treat  the  parasites  of  all  the  species  in  one  group. 

223.  The  raspberry  cane-borer  {Oherea  himaculata)  lays 
eggs  in  the  young  shoots  of  raspberries  in  early  summer, 
causing  the  tips  to  wilt.  The  egg  soon  hatches  if  undis- 
turbed, and  the  grub  burrows  downward  through  the  pith, 
reaching  the  root  in  autumn.  The  wilted  tips  should  be 
cut  off  below  the  injured  part  and  burned.  Canes  of  which 
the  leaves  are  found  wilting  during  late  summer  should  also 
be  cut  out  and  burned. 

224.  The  raspberry  slug  or  saw-fly  {Selandria  riihi) 
sometimes  devours  the  foliage  during  May  and  early  June. 
It  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the  foliage  with  water 
containing  hellebore,  or  with  dilute  kerosene. 

225.  The  tree  cricket  {(Ecanthus  nkeus)  lays  its  eggs  in 
a  rather  conspicuous  longitudinal  row,  in  the  canes  in  au- 
tumn, weakening  them  so  that  they  are  liable  to  be  broken 
by  wind  (Fig.  45).  The  only  preventive  known  is  to  cut 
out  and  burn  the  affected  canes.  These  are  most  readily 
detected  when  the  leaves  are  off. 

226.  A  small  fly,  Diastrophus  nebiUosus,  sometimes  lays 
its  eggs  in  canes  of  the  blackberry  causing  maggots  to  in- 
fest the  pith.  The  canes  when  thus  attacked  form  large, 
dark,  conspicuous,  red  or  reddish-brown,  longitudinally- 


156 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growl. 


mg. 


furrowed  galls,  which  weaken  the  cane  and  destroy  its 
functions.  Such  canes  should  be  cut  out  and  burned  dur- 
ing autumn  and  early  winter. 

22t.  The  anthracnose  {Gloeosporium 
necator)  is  a  fungous  disease  tliat  at- 
tacks the  young  canes  of  raspberries, 
blackberries  and  dewberries  during  the 
latter  part  of  June  and  through  July, 
beginning  toward  the  base  of  the  cane 
and  forming  circular  or  oval,  sunken, 
gray  spots,  bordered  by  a  distinct  pur- 
ple rim.  In  severe  cases  the  canes 
crack  and  may  be  wholly  destroyed. 
The  leaves  may  also  be  more  or  less  at- 
tacked. 

Anthracnose  has  not  as  yet  been  fully 
prevented  by  treatment.  Thorough 
spraying,  before  the  buds  swell  in  the 
spring,  with  a  solution  of  one  pound 
of  copper  sulfate  in  15  gallons  of  water, 
followed  by  thorough  applications  of 
Bordeaux  mixture  at  intervals  of  two     ^     ^^    ^tt  ,     ^  .^ 

Fig.  45.     Work  of  the 

weeks  until  midsummer,  has  been  rec-  tree  cricket,  a,  row  of 
ommended.      In   severe    attacks  it  is  Punctures   in  cane:   b, 

11      a-     i    1  ^^^^  ^^^  °P^°'  showing 

well  to  cut  and  burn  all  anected  canes  eggs;  c,  magnified  eggs. 
while  the  leaves  are  oflF.  (^ter  Riiey.) 

Some  varieties  are  less  subject  to  anthracnose  than  oth- 
ers; plantations  on  grounds  not  recently  occupied  by  the 
bramble  fruits  often  escape  attack. 

228.  The  orange  rust  or  red  rust  {Cceoma  luminatum) 
attacks  blackberries  and  raspberries.  Its  presence  is  indi- 
cated by  small,  pale-green  wrinkled  leaves,  followed  by  a 
copious  production  of  orange-colored  spores  on  the  under 


The  Small  Fruits.  157 

side  of  the  leaves  and  on  the  stems.  This  disease  appears 
to  be  communicated  from  one  plant  to  another,  especially 
when  their  roots  or  foliage  are  in  contact. 

All  affected  plants  should  be  promptly  dug  out  by  the 
roots  and  burned. 

229.  The  raspberry  is  used  for  dessert,  canning,  drying 
and  jam,  and  is  most  important  of  the  bramble  fruits.  It 
succeeds  the  strawberry  in  season.  The  native  species  are 
now  grown  more  or  less  throughout  the  United  States  and 
southern  Canada,  and,  with  winter  protection,  succeed  as 
far  north  as  any  of  our  cultivated  fruits.  The  European 
raspberry  was  formerly  considerably  grown  in  the  eastern, 
states,  but  as  its  canes  are  less  hardy  than  those  of  our  native 
species,  its  culture  has  been  nearh^  abandoned. 

230.  The  blackberry,  of  which  only  one  species  is  much 
cultivated,  grows  taller  and  stronger,  and  is  commonly 
more  fruitful  than  the  raspberries.  The  oblong  or  cylin- 
drical, commonly  black  fruit  is  mostly  borne  in  leafless 
racemes,  and  ripens  as  the  raspberries  are  failing.  The 
fruit  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  raspberries,  but  is 
less  popular.  There  is  a  variety  having  bright,  yellowish- 
green  canes  and  short  amber-  or  cream-colored  fruit. 

The  blackberries  fruit  more  extensively  toward  the  ends 
of  the  branches  than  the  raspberries,  and  hence  the  canes 
should  be  less  cut  back  in  spring  than  those  of  the  rasp- 
berry. 

231.  The  dewberry.  The  cultivated  dewberries  (mostly 
Rubus  villosus)  commonly  bear  larger,  more  juicy  and 
earlier-maturing  fruit  than  the  blackberry.  Their  cultiva- 
tion, while  apparently  on  the  increase,  is  less  general  than 
that  of  the  raspberry  and  blackberry,  probably  owing  to  the 
expensive  culture  necessitated  by  their  trailing  habit  (219). 


"15S  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

SUMMARY   OF   THE   PRECEDING   SECTION" 

1.  The  "small  fruits"  include  the  cultivated  berries,  the 
currant,  the  dwarf  cherry  aud  the  goumi  (210).  With  the 
exception  of  the  cranberry,  all  are  packed  for  loarket  in 
small  boxes  or  baskets  which  are  enclosed  in  crates  (211). 

2.  The  bramble  fruits  include  the  raspberry,  blackberry, 
and  dewberry  (212).  These  are  propagated  either  by  suck- 
ers from  the  roots  or  by  layering  the  tips  of  the  branches. 
All  may  be  propagated  from  root  cuttings  (213). 

3.  The  bramble  fruits  are  commonl}^  planted  6  or  7  feet 
apart,  in  rows  7  or  8  feet  apart  (214).  The  plants  begin 
to  fruit  the  second  season  after  planting;  the  third  season 
they  should  bear  a  full  crop  (215). 

4.  The  bramble  fruits  prove  most  continuously  produc- 
tive on  moderately  rich  land  (216).  The  plantation  should 
be  renewed  once  in  5  or  6  years  (217). 

5.  The  canes  of  the  bramble  fruits  need  more  or  less 
thinning  after  the  second  year.  Three  to  6  canes  to  a 
plant  are  sufficient.  Shoots  of  the  blackberry  and  black- 
cap raspberry  are  commonly  pinched  as  they  attain  the 
height  of  12  to  21  inches  (218). 

6.  Plants  of  the  blackberry  and  blackcap  raspberry  are 
often  trellised  to  keep  the  canes  within  bounds  (219).  The 
bramble  fruits  may  be  protected  in  winter,  in  severe  cli- 
mates, in  the  manner  described  for  the  grape  (220.) 

7.  The  bramble  fruits  continue  to  improve  in  quality 
until  ripe  enough  to  drop  from  the  plant  (221). 

8.  The  raspberry  cane-borer  may  be  destroyed  by  cutting 
■off  and  burning  the  wilted  tips  and  canes  (223).  The  rasp- 
berry saw-fly  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  water  con- 
taining hellebore  or  dilute  kerosene  (224).  The  tree  cricket 
may  be  held  in  check  by  burning  infested  canes  (225). 


The  Small  Fruits.  159 

9.  Antliracnose  of  the  bramble  fruits  may  be  held  iu 
check  b}''  cutting  out  and  burning  infested  canes,  and  plant- 
ing on  new  ground.  Spraying  is  but  partially  successful 
(227).  The  orange  rust  may  be  controlled  by  promptly 
rooting  out  and  burning  all  infested  plants  (228). 

10.  The  raspberry  is  most  important  of  the  bramble 
fruits  (229). 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   LABORATORY   WORK 

1.  Stud}'  the  growth  habit  of  the  bramble  fruits,  ascer- 
taining the  source  of  the  young  shoots  and  of  the  fruiting 
branches,  the  natural  methods  of  j)ropagatiou  of  the  differ- 
ent species,  etc. 

2.  Practice  propagating  the  different  species  by  root 
cuttings. 

3.  Practice  planting  the  young  plants  with  the  spade; 
in  the  manner  illustrated  for  the  strawberry  in  "  Princi- 
ples of  Plant  Culture." 

4.  Practice  "tipping"  the  ends  of  the  shoots  of  the 
blackcap  raspberry  for  propagation. 

Section  2 — The  Groselles. 

232.  The  grcselles  include  the  currants  and  the  goose- 
berries. These  are  dwarf,  many-stemmed  shrubs,  bearing 
flower  buds  mostly  on  short  spurs  from  wood  two  or  more 
years  old;  the  young  shoots  grow  mainly  from  near  the  base 
of  the  older  ones,  which  are  usually  more  or  less  recurved. 
The  wood  is  rather  soft,  contains  a  large  pith  and  roots 
freely  from  cuttings  or  layers,  by  which  means  the  varieties 
are  propagated.  The  groselles  are  very  resistant  to  cold, 
and  their  cultural  range  extends  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  United  States  and  far  northward  into  Canada.     The 


ICO  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing, 

following   species    are    more   or   less    cultivated   in    this 
country: 

(a)  The  red  (and  white)  currant  {Rihes  rubrum). 

(b)  The  black  currant  {Ribes  nigrum). 

(c)  The  Crandall,  Bu£falo  or  Missouri  currant  {Ribes 
aureum). 

(d)  The  American  gooseberry  [Ribes  oxyacanthoides). 

(e)  The  English  gooseberry  {Ribes  Grossularia). 

233.  Soil  and  culture.  While  the  groselles  will  endure 
neglect  better  than  many  other  fruits,  they  respond  liber- 
ally to  good  culture.  They  thrive  best  in  a  deep,  rich, 
moist  soil,  and  with  liberal  tillage  or  mulching. 

234.  Planting.  The  groselles  are  commonly  grown  at 
about  the  same  distances  as  the  bramble  fruits.  The  goose- 
berries and  the  smaller-growing  currants  may  be  planted 
3  by  6  feet;  the  larger-growing  currants  should  not  be 
planted  nearer  than  4  by  7  feet. 

235.  Pruning.  The  only  pruning  needed  by  the  groselles 
is  the  cutting  out  of  the  oldest  stems  and  the  thinning  of 
the  young  stems  when  needed.  The  older  stems  tend  to 
droop  and  thus  to  interfere  with  cultivation  and  to  bring 
the  fruit  too  near  the  ground.  Four  or  six  young  shoots 
are  usually  sufficient  for  one  plant. 

A — THE   CUREANTS 

236.  The  currants.  The  fruit  of  the  currants  is  chiefly 
used  for  jelly  and  preserves.  All  of  the  cultivated  species 
fruit  thiefl}^  on  short  spurs  from  two-year-old  or  older  wood 
(Fig.  46).  All  are  readily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  new 
or  older  wood,  planted  in  autumn  or  early  spring.  The  cen- 
tral buds  of  the  cuttings  are  often  rubbed  off  before  plant- 
ing to  prevent  more  than  two  or  three  shoots  from  growing. 


The  Small  Fruits. 


161 


The  currants  may  also  be  readily  propagated  by  layering 
the  branches,  which  will  root  the  first  season  if  covered  in 
spring  or  early  summer. 

The  red  and  white  currant,  of  which  there  are  several 
varieties  of  each  color,  is  the  only 
one  grown  commercially  in  Amer- 
ica to  a  large  extent,  the  black  cur- 
rants having  not  become  popular 
in  this  country. 

The  currants  are  so  easily  propa- 
gated, and  fruit  so  young  and  so 
profusely,  that  the  market  for  the 
fruit  is  readily  overstocked.  The 
crop  may  be  left  on  the  bushes  a 
long  time  after  maturity,  however, 
which  enables  proportionally  more 
of  the  fruit  to  be  sold  than  of 
shorter-lived  fruits. 

23?'.  Parasitic  enemies.      The 
curraut,   despite   its   hardiness,  is 
harassed  by  several  parasites  that 
render   the   plants   nearly   useless 
FIG.  46.  Fruiting  wood  of  red  ^^^^^^^  controlled  by  prompt  treat- 

currant.    S  S,  spurs. 

ments. 
238.  The  imported  currant  worm  {Xematus  ventncosus) 
attacks  the  foliage  of  the  red  and  white  currants  soon  after 
it  expands  in  spring  and  usually  defoliates  the  bushes  if 
neglected.  The  eggs  are  commonly  laid  on  the  lower 
leaves  near  the  center  of  the  plant,  and  the  young  larvae, 
which  at  first  eat  small  holes  through  the  leaves,  are  often 
unnoticed  unless  specially  looked  for.  The  larva)  are 
whitish  at  first,  but  soon  become  green,  and  later  are 
11 


162 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 


spotted  with  black,  changing  to  green  again  before  pupat- 
ing (Fig.  47).     Two  or  more  broods  appear  each  season. 
Treatment.      Spraying   the   affected  leaves  with  water 
containing  powdered  white  hellebore,  at  the  rate  of  an 


''^aa--,^ 


Fig.  47.   Currant  foliage  attacked  by  imported  currant  worm.    (After  Saunders.) 

ounce  to  three  gallons,  effectually  destroys  the  currant 
worm  without  poisoning  the  fruit.  The  spraying  should 
be  repeated  as  often  as  the  larvae  appear.  An  arsenite  may 
be  substituted  for  the  first  spraying  if  this  is  made  immedi- 
ately after  the  setting  of  the  fruit. 

239.  The  imported  currant  borer  {Sesia  tipuUformis) 
burrows  in  the  pith  of  the  red  and  white  currants.  The 
eggs  are  laid  in  the  spring,  usually  near  the  buds,  and  the 
larvae  eat  their  way  to  the  pith,  burrowing  up  or  down  the 
stem,  until  June  of  the  following  year. 

Treatment.  Spraying  the  stems  liberally,  just  as  the 
leaves  are  expanding,  with  water  containing  Paris  green 
will  destroy  many  of  the  larvge.  Infested  stems  are  easily 
detected  in  spring  by  their  pale-colored  foliage,  which  ex- 


The  Small  Fruits.  163 

pands  later  than  that  of  healthy  stems.  All  such  weak 
■stems  should  be  promptly  cut  and  burned  to  destroy  the 
larvae  within  them. 

'  240.  The  four-lined  leaf-bug  {Poecilocapsus  Uneafus)  at- 
tacks the  leaves  at  the  tips  of  the  shoots  during  June  and 
July,  sucking  out  their  juices.  The  bugs  may  be  jarred 
from  the  bushes  early  in  the  morning,  into  a  pan  contain- 
ing kerosene.  The  young  insects  may  be  destroyed  by 
dilute  kerosene  (about  ten  per  cent,  in  strength). 

241.  The  leaf  spot  or  rust  [Septoria  Elbis)  affects  all  of 
the  groselles,  appearing  in  early  summer  as  small,  brown 

-spots  upon  the  foliage.  In  case  of  severe  attack,  the  plants 
may  become  defoliated  during  the  latter  part  of  summer. 

Treatment.  To  prevent  this  disease,  the  plants  may  be 
sprayed  in  early  summer  with  the  ammoniacal  solution  of 
copper  carbonate,  to  be  followed  after  the  fruit  is  harvested 
with  a  copious  spraying  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Plant  lice  (53)  often  attack  the  foliage  of  the  groselles. 
On  the  red  currant  these  often  cause  the  foliage  to  blister 
and  red  spots  sometimes  form  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
leaves.  The  lice  are  often  diflBcult  to  destroy,  but  spraying 
-with  dilute  kerosene  is  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  treat- 
ment. 

242.  The  black  currant  {Ribes  nigrum)  is  more  vigorous 
in  habit  than  the  red  currant,  and  less  subject  to  damage 
from  insects  and  diseases.  The  foliage  has  a  peculiar,  pun- 
gent odor,  and  the  fruit  is  acid  and  aromatic;  though  es- 
teemed by  some  people,  it  is  not  generally  popular. 

243.  The  Crandall  currant  {Ribes  aureum)  is  cultivated 
io  a  slight  extent  for  its  large,  glossy,  bluish-black,  rather 
mild  fruits,  which  are  esteemed  by  some  for  jelly  and 


164:  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

sauce.     The  best  strains  of  this  fruit  are  remarkably  pro- 
ductive. The  bush  is  the  largest  of  the  cultivated  currants. 

B  —  THE   GOOSEBERRIES 

244.  The  gfooseherries  are  more  dwarfed  and  more  slen- 
der-stemmed than  the  currants,  and  are  commonly  some- 
what thorny.  The  fruit  is  largely  produced  on  wood  of 
the  preceding  season,  and  less  on  spurs  than  in  the  cur- 
rant. The  varieties  of  the  European  gooseberry  are  little 
grown  in  this  country,  owing  to  their  susceptibility  to  dis- 
ease, but  the  native  varieties  are  comparatively  hardy  and 
are  considerably  cultivated.  The  fruit  is  generally  used 
immature  for  sauces,  canning  and  preserving. 

245.  Propagation.  The  gooseberries  are  less  readily 
propagated  by  cuttings  than  the  currants,  but  are  easily 
propagated  by  mound-layering.  The  new  growth,  if  covered 
after  it  is  several  inches  long,  commonly  roots  by  autumn. 
The  shoots  may  then  be  taken  up  and  cut  apart,  retaining 
a  piece  of  the  rooted  main  branch,  and  planted  as  directed 
for  currant  cuttings  (236).  They  should  form  good  plants 
by  the  following  autumn.  The  slower-rooting  varieties 
may.be  encouraged  to  root  by  breaking  the  bark  slightly 
at  the  time  of  covering  the  stems. 

246.  Pruning.  In  addition  to  the  pruning  recommended 
for  the  groselles  (235),  the  size  of  the  fruit  may  be  increased 
by  cutting  off  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  new  growth  just 
before  the  leaves  start  in  spring. 

24?".  Insects  and  diseases.  The  gooseberry  is  more  sub- 
ject to  damage  from  the  imported  currant  worm  than  the 
red  currant,  and  the  treatment  recommended  for  the  latter 
(239)  should  be  carefully  observed. 


The  Small  Fruits.  165 

248.  The  §:ooseberry  mildew  {Sphceroflma  Mors-uvce) 
attacks  the  young  foliage  and  fruits,  causing  the  leaves  to 
shrivel,  and  forming  a  cobweb-like  covering  over  them. 
Later,  the  aflFected  parts  become  whitish,  as  if  sprinkled 
with  a  white  powder.  The  diseased  shoots  often  branch 
freely,  and  affected  berries  generally  drop  before  maturity. 
The  European  varieties  are  most  affected. 

Treatment.  This  disease,  being  a  surface  fungus,  is  read- 
ily prevented  by  timel}''  applications.  The  bushesm  ay  be 
sprayed  early  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  but  as  the  fruit 
forms,  a  colorless  fungicide  should  be  substituted.  Weekly 
applications  of  a  solution  of  potassium  sulfide  (liver  of 
sulfur),  at  the  rate  of  half  an  ounce  to  one  gallon,  have 
given  excellent  results.  Dissolve  the  sulfide  in  a  little 
hot  (not  boiling)  water,  adding  the  solution  to  the  larger 
quantity  of  water. 

Section  3  —  The  Straivhemj    . 

249.  The  strawberry  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  de- 
licious of  temperate  fruits.  As  its  low  habit  enables  it  to 
be  readily  protected  in  winter,  it  may  be  grown  in  colder 
climates  than  most  other  fruits.  Its  cultural  range  ex- 
tends over  all  of  the  cultivated  parts  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  It  comes  into  bearing  sooner  after  planting 
than  any  other  perennial  fruit  plant,  and  since  its  adop- 
tion into  culture  it  has  always  been  popular  with  the  am- 
ateur. 

The  strawberries  now  cultivated  nearly  all  belong  to  the 
species  Fragaria  Chiloensis,  var.  ananassa.  This  species 
inclines  to  be  more  or  less  dioecious,  i.  e.,  to  produce  the 
stamens  and  pistils  on  different  plants,  rather  than  in  the 
same  flower,  hence  the  garden  varieties,  which  come  from 
seedling  plants,  often  bear  imperfect  flowers. 


166  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing, 

The  fruit  of  the  strawberry  is  the  expanded  receptacle  of 
the  flower,  and  bears  the  seeds  upon  its  surface  in  more 
or  less  marked  depressions. 

The  roots  of  the  strawberry  spread  laterally  little  farther 
than  the  leaves  and  commonly  grow  shallow  in  the  soil^ 
hence  the  plant  is  very  liable  to  suffer  from  drought  in 
summer. 

250.  Growth  and  fruiting  haWt.  The  strawberry  com^ 
monly  multiplies  from  trailing  runners,  which  are  slender 
branches  proceeding  from  the  axillary  buds  of  the  parent 
plant  that  are  formed  early  in  the  season.  Some  of  the 
later  axillary  buds  do  not  form  runners,  but  develop  into 
branches  of  the  main  stem,  while  those  formed  still  later, 
together  with  the  terminal  bud,  become  flower  buds  which 
live  over  winter  and  expand  early  the  following  season. 
The  runners  grow  throughout  the  summer,  rooting  at  the 
nodes,  and  the  young  plants  thus  formed  commonly  de- 
velop flower  buds  the  same  year.  The  following  spring, 
the  branches  of  the  main  stem  above  mentioned,  develop 
leaves  and  runners,  and  later,  other  branches  and  flower 
buds,  and  thus  the  life  of  the  plant  is  continued  from  year 
to  year.  The  very  short  stem  of  the  strawberry  plant  is  a 
rhizome  of  the  class  known  as  caudex,  which  develops 
largely  under  ground  and  which  roots  at  the  nodes,  the 
older  roots  dying  as  the  stem  elongates.  It  follows  that 
the  stem  tends  year  by  year  to  project  itself  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  This  probably  limits  the  life  of  the 
plant,  as  new  roots  develop  only  from  the  younger  nodes. 
The  plant  tends  to  lose  vigor  as  it  increases  in  age,  because 
the  roots  continually  become  shallower  in  the  soil,  while 
the  flower  buds  are  more  and  more  exposed  to  the  weather. 

251.  Soil.  The  strawberry  thrives  on  any  soil  capable 
of  yielding  good  farm  crops,  providing  it  is  well  fertilized 


The  Small  Fruits.  167 

and  in  a  state   of  thorougli  cultivation.     Varieties  vary 
greatly  in  their  adaptation  to  different  soils. 

252.  Planting  with  reference  to  pollination.  Since  many 
varieties  of  the  strawberry  are  more  or  less  dioecious  (250), 
and  since  many  of  the  most  valuable  sorts  produce  little  or 
no  pollen,  it  is  important  to  provide  for  the  pollination  ot 
dioecious  (imperfect-flowered)  varieties  by  planting  with 
them  a  certain  proportion  of  one  or  more  perfect-flowered 
kinds.  In  culture,  the  dioecious  sorts  are  commonly  known 
as  pistiUates,  and  the  perfect-flowered  sorts  used  to  supply  the 
pistillates  with  pollen  are  called  pollenizers^  sfaminafes,  or 
fertilizers.  As  a  rule,  one  row  of  the  pollen-bearing  va- 
riety is  planted  to  each  3  or  4  of  the  pistillate  sort.  Pollen- 
izers  should  be  selected  that  bloom  as  early  as,  and  continue 
to  bloom  as  late  as,  the  pistillate  variety  with  which  the}"" 
are  grown. 

253.  Culture.  Strawberry  culture  is  necessarily  some- 
what expensive,  as  the  low  growth  of  the  plants  renders 
them  very  subject  to  damage  from  weeds.  Whatever  sys- 
tem of  culture  is  practiced,  a  clean  soil  and  frequent  culti- 
vation and  weeding  are  essential  to  the  highest  success. 

Planting.  Strawberry  plantations  are  sometimes  made 
in  late  summer  or  during  autumn,  but  more  commonly  in 
spring.  Summer-  or  autumn-set  plants  do  not  make  suffi- 
cient growth  to  form  many  runners  or  fruit-buds  before 
winter,  and  hence  yield  but  a  small  crop  of  fruit  the  fol- 
lowing season.  The  soil  about  them  becomes  compacted 
during  winter,  hence  the  growth  of  the  plants  is  more  or 
less  restricted  the  next  season.  Only  young  plants  from 
young  and  healthy  plantations  should  be  used.  Such 
plants  have  white  roots.  The  plants  are  commonly  set 
about  2  feet  apart  in  rows  Ss  to  i  feet  apart. 


168  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

The  matted-row  system.  Since  the  strawberry  plant 
multiplies  without  assistance,  and  the  young  plants  are 
formed  near  the  parent,  it  is  most  conveniently  cultivated 
in  narrow  beds  (matted  rows),  leaving  sjiaces  1  to  2  feet 
wide  between  the  beds  for  cultivation  and  to  serve  as  paths 
for  gathering  the  fruit.  As  the  plants  rapidly  lose  vigor 
with  advancing  age,  they  are  commonly  permitted  to  re- 
new themselves  more  or  less  completely  each  season.  This 
is  accomplished  by  removing  the  larger  part  of  the  plants 
in  the  matted  beds  after  fruiting,  and  permitting  runners 
from  those  left  to  refill  the  bed  with  young  plants  for 
fruiting  the  following  year.  Before  this  is  done,  the  bed 
is  often  mowed  over,  and  the  cut-off  material  dried  and 
burned  between  the  rows.  The  spaces  between  the  matted 
rows  are  kept  well  cultivated  to  conserve  moisture  and  are 
mulched  during  the  fruiting  season  to  keep  the  fruit  clean. 
The  amount  of  thinning  given  the  plants  after  fruiting 
should  depend  upon  the  vigor  of  the  variety.  The  more 
vigorous  varieties,  as  Warfield,  on  good  soil,  will  furnish 
abundance  of  young  plants  if  a  row  only  6  or  8  inches 
wide  is  left  in  the  center  of  the  matted  bed,  and  if  the 
plants  in  this  row  are  fully  one-half  removed.  The  matted 
rows  may  be  narrowed  by  turning  a  shallow  furrow  from 
each  side,  with  a  plow  having  a  sharp,  revolving  coulter. 
The  soil  overturned  may  then  be  worked  down  level  by  a 
cultivator  having  narrow  teeth.  In  small  strawberry  beds, 
the  rows  may  be  narrowed  with  the  spade. 

If  the  plantation  does  not  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture, 
the  young  plants  are  likely  to  grow  too  thickly,  in  which 
case  they  should  be  thinned  out  late  in  autumn  or  early 
the  following  spring.  As  a  rule,  plants  should  not  be 
permitted  to  stand  less  than  4  to  6  inches  from  each  other. 


The  Small  Fruits.  1G9 

The  hill  system.  The  runners  of  strawberry  plants  are 
sometimes  removed  as  they  form,  thus  causing  the  plants 
to  remain  single  or  in  ''  hills/' 

Plants  thus  pruned  form  large,  ranny-hrauched  rhizomes, 
which  produce  more  fruit  than  individual  plants  that  are 
permitted  to  form  runners.  But  the  aggregate  yield  from 
plantations  thus  grown  is  usually  less  than  from  matted 
rows.  The  fruits  are,  however,  often  superior  in  size  and 
quality.-  This  method  of  culture  is  little  j)racticed  except 
by  amateurs. 

Duration  of  the  'plantation.  More  than  two  crops  of 
fruit  are  seldom  taken  from  a  strawberry  plantation.  Many 
growers  take  but  one.  While  the  plants  renew  themselves, 
and  thus  make  it  possible  to  continue  the  plantation  in- 
definitely, the  labor  required  to  keep  out  weeds  is  so  great 
that  it  is  commonly  regarded  wise  to  renew  the  plantation 
on  other  ground  once  in  two  or  three  years. 

254.  Winter  protection  is  essential  to  the  highest  success 
in  strawberry  culture  in  climates  where  much  freezing  oc- 
curs in  winter.  A  thin  covering  (one  or  two  inches)  of 
clean  straw,  marsh  hay,  leaves,  or  some  other  litter  that  is 
free  from  weed  seeds  should  be  applied  before  hard  freezing 
in  autumn.  This  covering  tends  to  retain  frost  in  the 
ground  in  spring,  and  thus  retards  the  growth  of  the  plants 
somewhat,  unless  promptly  removed.  It  is  often  left  on 
for  a  time  to  hold  back  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and  thus 
to  retard  the  ripening  of  the  fruit. 

255.  Protection  from  frost.  The  low  habit  of  the  straw- 
berry plant  renders  it  possible  to  protect  the  blossoms  from 
frost  to  a  greater  degree  than  is  practicable  with  the  taller- 
growing  fruits.  A  light  covering  of  the  litter  used  for 
winter  protection,  applied  ou  the  eve  when  frost  is  ex- 


170  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

pected,  is  often  successful  in  preventing  damage  from  this 
cause. 

256.  Harvesting:.  Tlie  fruit  of  the  strawberry  is  soft  and 
perishable,  hence  especial  care  is  necessary  in  handling  it 
(16)  (212).  The  fruit  colors  well  in  the  package  if  picked 
slightly  immature. 

25^.  Insects  and  diseases.  The  strawberry  leaf-roller 
{Plioxopterls  comptana)  lays  its  eggs  upon  the  leaves  of  the 
strawberry  in  early  spring.  The  larvae  feed  upon  the  foli- 
age and  mature  in  June,  causing  the  leaflets  to  roll  upward^ 
inclosing  the  insects.  There  are  two  broods  in  a  season 
in  the  northern  states. 

Treatment.  After  the  fruiting  season,  moAv  over  the 
strawberry  plantation,  cutting  off  all  foliage  within  an  inch 
or  two  of  the  soil.  When  the  cut-off  herbage  is  sufficiently 
dry,  rake  it  between  the  rows  and  burn  it  all.  Should  the 
leaf-roller  be  troublesome  in  the  young  plantation,  spray 
the  plants  in  the  latter  part  of  summer  with  water  con- 
taining Paris  green  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  two  hun- 
dred gallons. 

258.  The  strawberry  root-borer  [Anarsia  Uneatella)  i^ 
sometimes  very  injurious  to  strawberry  plantations.  It  is 
a  reddish-pink  caterpillar,  nearly  half  an  inch  long,  which 
eats  irregular  channels  through  the  crown  of  the  plant. 
The  moth,  which  is  the  perfect  form  of  this  insect,  lays  its 
eggs  on  the  crown  of  the  plant,  rather  late  in  summer,  and 
the  larva  burrows  into  the  heart  of  the  plant,  where  it  re- 
mains during  the  winter,  escaping  early  in  June.  For 
treatment  see  (260). 

259.  The  strawberry  crown-Jiortr  (Ti/Iodennafragarico)^ 
a  small  beetle  belonging  to  the  curculio  family,  deposits  its 
eggs  about  the  crown  of  the  plant  early  in  summer.     The 


The  Small  Fruits.  171 

larva  feeds  witliin  the  crown  until  Ml  grown,  when  it  is 
about  one-fifth  inch  long.  It  is  then  white,  with  a  horny, 
yellow  head.  It  transforms  within  the  plant,  the  beetle 
escaping  late  in  summer.  Infested  plants  soon  perish.  Old 
beds  are  more  liable  to  attack  than  young  ones.  For  treat- 
ment see  (260). 

260.  The  may  beetle.  The  larva  of  this  insect  {Lachnos- 
ternn  fiisca),  commonly  known  as  the  white  grub,  often 
attacks  the  roots  of  strawberry  plants  late  in  summer, 
especially  when  the  plantation  was  made  upon  inverted- 
sod  ground,  and  sometimes  proves  very  destructive. 

Treatment.  The  only  known  way  of  combating  the 
strawberry  root-borer,  crown-borer  and  white  grub  is  to 
dig  out  all  infested  plants  and  destroy  the  larvae  within  or 
about  them. 

261.  The  Strawberry  saw-fly  {Emphitns  maculatus)  is 
sometimes  very  destructive,  in  its  larval  stage,  to  the  leaves 
of  the  strawberry.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  stem  of  the 
leaf  early  in  May,  and  the  larvae  feed  upon  the  leaves  until 
mature,  when  they  are  pale  green,  with  a  faint,  whitish 
bloom,  and  nearly  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long. 

Treatment.     The  foliage  may  be  sprayed,  before  the  fruit 
matures,  with  water  containing  hellebore  powder  at  the 
rate  of  an  ounce  to  three  gallons.     Cutting  and  burning* 
the  foliage,  as  recommended  for  the  leaf -roller  (258),  will 
destroy  many  of  the  larvae. 

262.  Thrips.  A  minute  insect  {Euthrlps  tritici)  some- 
times destroys  blossoms  of  the  strawberry  by  feeding  on 
the  stamens  and  pistils.     No  preventive  for  it  is  known. 

263.  The  strawberry  leaf-bli§:ht,  also  called  rust  and 
sunburn  {Sphcerella  Fragarice),  attacks  the  foliage  of  straw- 
berries during  the  growing  season,  often  becoming  serious 


172  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

late  in  summer  and  during  autumn  —  especiallj'- on  plan- 
tations more  than  one  year  old.  The  first  symptom  is  the 
formation  of  small,  purple  spots,  which  increase  in  size  to 
an  eighth  or  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  purple 
color  soon  changes  to  clear,  reddish-brown,  which  becomes 
still  lighter  as  the  season  advances.  The  edges  of  the 
spots,  however,  generally  remain  purple.  The  fungus  passes 
the  winter  by  a  mycelium  contained  within  the  leaves,  as 
well  as  by  spores. 

Treatment.  Burning  the  foliage  after  the  fruiting  sea- 
son, as  recommended  for  the  strawberry  leaf-roller  (257), 
generally  prevents  serious  damage  from  this  disease. 

264.  The  Strawberry  mildew  [Sphcerotheca  castagnei) 
attacks  both  the  berries  and  the  leaves,  covering  them  with 
a  thin  net  of  mycelium  resembling  delicate  cobwebs.  The 
affected  leaves  fold  up  on  the  midrib  and  appear  as  if  suf- 
fering from  want  of  water.  The  disease  is  thought  to  be 
most  serious  on  poorly-drained  ground. 

Treatment.  Sprinkle  flowers  of  sulfur  upon  the  foliage 
and  between  the  plants  as  soon  as  the  symptoms  appear; 
or  spray  unfruiting  plants  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

SUMMARY   OF   THE   TWO   PRECEDUSTG    SECTIONS 

1.  The  groselles  include  the  currants  and  gooseberries. 
While  these  are  very  hardy  shrubs,  they  respond  liberally 
to  good  treatment,  and  thrive  best  in  a  deep,  rich,  moist 
soil,  with  thorough  tillage  or  mulching  (232,  233). 

2.  The  groselles  may  be  planted  at  the  same  distances 
as  the  bramble  fruits  (234).  They  are  pruned  by  thinning 
out  the  older  branches  (235). 

3.  The  currants  are  chiefly  used  for  jelly  and  preserves. 
Tlie}^  are  propagated  from  cuttings,  which  may  be  planted 


The  Small  Fruits.  173 

in  the  open  ground.     The  market  for  currants  is  easily 
overstocked  (236). 

4.  The  imported  currant  worm  is  readily  controlled  by 
spraying  with  water  containing  hellebore  powder  in  sus- 
pension (238).  The  currant  borer  may  be  held  in  check 
by  spraying  the  stems  with  water  containing  Paris  green, 
and  by  cutting  and  burning  infested  stems  (239). 

5.  The  leaf  spot  of  the  groselles  may  be  prevented  by 
timely  sprayings  with  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  or 
Bordeaux  mixture  (242). 

6.  The  fruit  of  the  gooseberry  is  generally  used  imma- 
ture, for  sauces,  canning  and  preserving  (244). 

7.  The  gooseberry  is  commonly  propagated  by  mound 
layering  (245). 

8.  The  gooseberry  mildew  may  be  prevented  by  spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  a  solution  of  potassium  sulfide 
(248). 

9.  The  strawberry  plant  comes  sooner  into  bearing  and 
is  cultivated  over  a  wider  range  than  most  other  fruit 
plants  (249). 

10.  The  strawberry  plant  multiplies  itself  from  runners 
which  root  at  the  nodes.  The  stem  tends,  year  by  year,  to 
project  itself  above  the  ground,  making  the  roots  shallower 
in  the  soil  and  exposing  the  flower-buds  more  to  the 
weather  (250). 

11.  The  flowers  of  many  varieties  of  the  strawberry  bear 
little  or  no  pollen;  such  varieties  are  fruitful  only  when 
grown  near  others  that  yield  abundant  pollen  (252). 

12.  The  strawberry  is  commonly  cultivated  in  narrow 
beds  (matted  rows).  The  plants  are  mostly  renewed  each 
season  by  narrowing  the  matted  rows  after  fruiting.  The 
spaces  between  the  rows  should  be  well  cultivated,  except 


174  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

during  tlie  fruiting  season,  when  tliey  are  commonly 
mulclied.  New  plantations  are  usually  made  in  spring 
{253). 

13.  Winter  protection  is  essential  to  the  highest  success 
in  strawberry  culture,  where  much  freezing  occurs  in  win- 
ter (251).  Protection  from  frost  during  the  growing  season 
may  be  given  by  covering  the  plants  with  litter  (255). 

14.  The  strawberry  leaf-roller  and  the  strawberry  leaf- 
blight  may  be  held  in  check  by  mowing  over  the  planta- 
tion after  the  fruiting  season  and  burning  the  cut-off  foli- 
age (257-263).  The  root-borer,  the  crown-borer  and  the 
may  beetle  are  combated  by  digging  out  infested  plants 
and  destroying  the  larvae  (258-260). 

15.  The  strawberry  saw-fly  may  be  destroyed  by  spray- 
ing the  foliage  with  water  containing  hellebore  powder 
(261).  The  strawberry  mildew  may  be  held  in  check  by 
sprinkling  flowers  of  sulfur  upon  the  foliage  and  between 
the  plants,  or  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  (264). 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   LABORATORY   WORK 

1.  Practice  propagating  the  currant  by  layers  and  cut- 
tings, and  the  gooseberry  by  mound-layering. 

2.  Study  the  stems  of  the  currant  and  gooseberry  while 
in  flower  or  while  bearing  fruit,  to  ascertain  the  fruiting 
parts. 

3.  Study  the  insects  and  diseases  affecting  the  currant 
and  gooseberry  from  the  growing  plants,  and  apply  the 
remedies  therefor. 

4.  Study  the  characteristics  of  different  species  and  va- 
rieties of  the  currant  and  gooseberry  from  living  plants. 

5.  Study  the  morphology  of  the  strawberry  plant  by 
washing  out  and  examining  plants  of  different  ages. 


The  Small  Fruits.  175 

6,  Study  in  the  plantation  the  insects  and  diseases  af- 
fecting the  strawberry  plant. 

7.  Practice  picking  and  packing  the  fruit  of  the  straw- 
berry. 

Section  4-— The  Cranlernj 

265.  The  cranberry  differs  from  other  temperate  fruit 
plants  in  being  partially  aquatic  in  habit.  In  its  wild 
«tate  it  thrives  best  in  peat  marshes  so  located  that  they 
are  submerged  during  the  freezing  part  of  the  year,  and  in 
which  the  water  level  lowers  to  a  foot  or  two  below  the 
soil  surface  during  the  warm  season.  If  the  water  contains 
time  in  solution,  the  plants  are  rarely  permanently  pro- 
ductive. In  culture,  the  cranberry  can  only  be  grown 
successfully  Avhen  its  environment  is  very  similar  to  that 
which  surrounds  the  productive  wild  marshes. 

But  one  species  of  the  cranberry  has  been  cultivated  to 
:any  large  extent,  viz.,  the  large  or  American  cranberry 
iVaccinium  macrocarpon).  This  species  is  native  from 
Virginia  northward,  and  westward  to  Wisconsin.  The 
plant  is  creeping,  with  slender,  scarcely-woody  stems 
t)earing  small  evergreen  leaves. 

266.  Fruiting:  habit.  The  flowers  are  borne  on  slender 
shoots  that  grow  from  wood  of  the  preceding  year.  The 
flower-buds  form  in  autumn,  mostly  in  the  terminal  buds 
ot  these  shoots,  but  the  latter  grow  on  the  next  season,  so 
that  the  flowers  become  axillary  as  in  the  grape.  The 
fruit  ripens  in  autumn,  and,  in  some  varieties,  keeps  until 
spring. 

267.  Cultural  ran§:e.  The  cranberry  is  chiefly  culti- 
vated in  Northern  United  States  and  Canada,  and  since  its 


176  Zcsso7is  in  Fruit  Gi'owing. 

successful  culture  is  limited  to  soft-water  marshes,  it  can 
hardly  become  extensively  grown  as  compared  with  our 
other  cultivated  fruits.  It  is  at  present  most  grown  on 
the  peninsula  of  Cape  Cod,  in  parts  of  New  Jersey,  Maine 
and  Wisconsin,  and  in  Nova  Scotia. 

268.  Culture.  The  highestsuccessin  cranberry  culture  re- 
quires not  only  the  proper  soil  with  abundance  of  soft  water, 
but  the  power  to  control  the  water  supply  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year.  The  ability  to  drain  the  plantation  during  the 
growing  season  so  that  the  water  level  is  a  few  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  soil  is,however,  of  greater  importance  than 
the  power  to  flood  it  at  will. 

The  culture  of  cranberries  is  carried  on  under  two  meth- 
ods, viz.,  on  improved  wild  marshes  and  on  artificially 
planted  ones. 

269.  Improving:  wild  marshes.  This  consists  chiefly  in 
clearing  the  ground  that  already  produces  wild  cranberries, 
of  trees,  logs,  bushes  and  other  rubbish,  in  draining  it  more 
or  less  thoroughly,  and  in  providing  certain  facilities  for 
controlling  the  water.  The  draining  should  be  performed 
gradually.  It  is  cranberry  culture  in  its  simplest  form*, 
and  the  improvements  are  carried  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent according  as  the  work  proves  profitable.  The  fruit 
produced  on  wild  marshes  is  rarely  uniform  as  to  size  or 
keeping  quality,  and  hence  is  not  usually  as  valuable  as 
that  produced  on  the  better  planted  marshes. 

2^0.  Selecting  g:round  for  the  cranberry.  Grounds  suit- 
able to  cranberry  culture  are  generally  subject  to  frost,  and 
hence  should  be  selected  with  especial  reference  to  cold-air 
drainage. 

Only  alluvial  or  mucky  soils  that  are  free  from  clay  or 
loam  are  adapted  to  the  cranberry.     An  equal  mixture  of 


The  Small  Fniits.  177 

coarse  sand  and  muck,  or  a  layer  of  pure  muck,  with  coarse 
sand  above  or  below,  is  the  ideal  soil.  Pure  muck  produces 
an  excessively  rampant  growth  that  is  not  fruitful.  In 
New  Jersey  and  Massachusetts,  the  muck  is  commonly 
covered  with  a  layer  of  coarse  sand. 

The  cranberry  requires  moisture  always  near  the  surface, 
but  this  water  must  not  be  stagnant.  On  true  cranberry 
ground,  the  soil  rarely  becomes  dry  more  than  half  an 
inch  below  the  surface. 

271.  Preparing:  the  marsh  for  planting:.  Drainage  first 
requires  attention.  A  main  ditch  is  commonly  cut  about 
two  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  muck  layer,  wide  enough 
to  contain  so  much  of  the  marsh  water  that  the  surface 
will  not  be  flooded  after  heavy  rains.  The  bushes  are  next 
piled  into  heaps  in  a  dry  time  and  burned,  and  it  is  well  if 
the  turf  also  burns.  The  remaining  turf  is  next  cut  into 
blocks  and  removed.  These  blocks  of  turf  are  sometimes 
used  for  fencing  the  marsh  or  for  making  dams.  The 
stumps  are  then  cut  off  even  with  the  surface  of  the  muck, 
and  a  sufficient  number  of  branch  drains  cut  through  the 
marsh  to  drain  the  whole  to  the  depth  of  12  to  18  inches. 
The  earth  removed  from  the  branch  drains  is  commonly 
spread  over  the  surface.  Where  sanding  is  practiced,  a 
layer  of  sand  is  next  put  on,  of  a  thickness  proportional 
to  the  depth  of  the  muck.  When  the  latter  is  1  to  2  feet 
thick,  the  sand  layer  should  be  2  to  3  inches  thick, 

272.  Planting.  The  cranberry  is  propagated  from  cut- 
tings of  the  young  wood,  which  are  planted  in  place. 
These  should  be  taken  from  plants  that  produce  freely  of 
large,  well-colored  and  good-keeping  fruit.  To  procure 
the  cuttings  rapidly,  the  vines  from  a  well-matted  marsh 
are  often  mown  off  close  to  the  ground  with  a  scythe,  and, 

12 


178  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

after  picking  out  the  coarser  stems,  the  parts  suitable  for 
cuttings  are  cut  into  pieces  1  to  6  inches  long.  Sometimes 
the  stems  are  run  through  a  feed  cutter.  The  cuttings  may 
be  planted  in  spring  or  early  summer  and  in  autumn. 
They  are  sometimes  planted  in  drills  opened  with  the  plow, 
li  to  3  feet  apart,  but  often  they  are  sown  evenly  over 
the  prepared  surface  of  the  marsh,  which  is  preferablj^  cov- 
ered with  about  an  inch  of  water.  Sometimes  the  cuttings 
are  pressed  into  the  moist  soil,  but  where  the  water  layer 
can  be  maintained,  this  is  not  necessary. 

2XZ.  Care  after  planting:.  Grass  and  weeds  should  be 
kept  out  of  the  marsh  until  the  vines  are  well  matted.  A 
moist  surface  should  be  maintained,  but  ground  water 
should  be  kept  12  or  18  inches  below  the  surface.  Scatter- 
ing vines  are  sometimes  benefited  by  rolling  the  marsh. 
Old  vines  may  often  be  restored  to  vigor  by  mowing  them 
off  in  spring,  though  the  first  one  or  two  crops  thereafter 
will  be  diminished.  The  plantation  needs  little  attention 
during  the  growing  season,  except  to  look  after  the  water 
supply  and  insect  attacks. 

274,  Flooding  at  certain  times  is  necessary  to  insure  per- 
manence to  the  vines,  and  to  protect  from  insects  and  frost. 
It  is  accomplished  by  damming  up  the  water,  causing  it  to 
rise  in  the  ditches,  and  suitable  dams  should  be  provided 
for  this  purpose.  Bearing  plantations  should  be  flooded 
when  growth  ceases  in  autumn,  and  should  be  kept  cov- 
ered with  water  until  the  following  spring  is  so  well  ad- 
vanced that  danger  from  frost  is  no  longer  feared.  Occa- 
sionally the  plants  are  flooded  during  the  growiug  season, 
to  destroy  insects  or  prevent  frost.  Many  cranberry  marshes 
have  no  facilities  for  flooding,  but  on  such  the  crop  is  quite 
uncertain. 


The  Small  Fruits.  179 

275.  Picking:  and  storing:.  The  berries  are  ripe  enough 
to  gather  when  the  seeds  are  brown.  Picking  should  com- 
mence as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  well  colored,  and  the  fruit 
should  be  so  handled  as  to  prevent  bruising.  It  should 
only  be  picked  when  dry,  or  if  necessarily  gathered  wet 
should  be  quickly  dried.  The  later  berries  that  are  not 
well  colored  when  picked  will  improve  in  color  if  spread  in 
a  shaded,  airy  place. 

Many  cranberries  are  now  gathered  with  an  implement 
resembling  a  rake,  the  use  of  which  is  thought  to  benefit 
old  and  densely-matted  vines,  by  thinning  them  out.  Ber- 
ries so  gathered  are  run  through  a  machine  resembling  a 
fanning  mill,  to  free  them  from  foreign  matters. 

Different  varieties  of  the  cranberry  vary  greatly  in  keep- 
ing quality,  hence  the  early  and  later  varieties  should  not 
be  mixed,  if  the  fruit  is  expected  to  keep  well.  Berries 
free  from  spots  and  bruises,  and  of  a  good  keeping  sort, 
should  keep  all  winter  in  a  cool  cellar.  They  may  be  pre- 
served indefinitely  by  canning,  and  by  placing  them  in 
stone  jugs  or  crocks,  filling  the  latter  with  cold  water  that 
has  been  previously  well  boiled,  and  storing  in  a  cool  cel- 
lar, they  are  said  to  keep  a  full  year,  or  even  longer. 

Cranberries  keep  best  in  boxes  sufficiently  open  to  per- 
mit ventilation.  They  are  commonly  packed  for  market 
in  barrels. 

2X6.  The  black-headed  cranberry  worm  {Rlwpobofa  vac- 
ciniand)  (the  "vine  worm"  of  Massachusetts  and  the  "  fire 
worm"  of  New  Jersey),  and  the  yellow-headed  cranberry 
worm  [Teras  vacciniivorana)  feed  on  the  foliage,  buds  and 
young  berries  during  summer,  often  proving  very  destruc- 
tive. They  are  held  in  check  by  retaining  the  water  on 
the  marshes  late  in  the  spring,  or  by  drawing  it  off  early 


ISO 


Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 


and  then  reflowing  after  the  eggs  have  hatched.  The  larvae 
and  eggs  may  also  he  destroyed  by  spraying  with  kerosene 
emulsion. 

277".  The  fruit  worm  (^^roirtSismccmi)  (Fig.  48)  is  often 
very  destructive.  The  moth  appears  at  the  time  the  ber- 
ries are  beginning  to  form,  and  deposits  eggs,  usually  in 
the  calyx.  •  The  larvse 
feed  on  the  fruit  until 
September,  Spraying 
the  plantation  as  soon 
as  the  berries  are  set, 
with  water  containing 
Paris  green  at  the  rate 
of  a  pound  to  200  gal- 
lons, is   thought    to   de-       Fig.  48.    cranberry  fruit  worm,    a,  berry, 

stroy  the  larvae  as  they  ^^^^'^^  «^^'  ^'  ^^^  ^''^^  '"*"'  *^'  ^^^  *'"^'" 

top;  d,  larva;  e,  pupa;  f,  tip  of  pupa;  g,  co- 
attempt  to  enter  the  coon;  b,  perfect  insect.  All  enlarged;  lines 
fruit.        Lighted     lamps,    indicate  natural  size.    (After  Riley.) 

set  at  night  over  vessels  of  water  distributed  about  the 
marsh,  are  said  to  destroy  many  of  the  moths. 

2?'8.  Other  harmful  insects.  The  Up  worm  {Cecidomyia 
faccinii)  sometimes  destroys  the  terminal  buds,  and  a  scale 
insect  {Aspidiotus  sp.)  which  occasionally  infests  the  stems, 
may  probably  be  held  in  check  by  kerosene  emulsion. 
Grasshoppers  and  locusts  are  sometimes  troublesome,  and 
may  be  controlled  in  a  measure  by  keeping  turkeys  on  the 
marshes. 

Section  5 —  The  Miscellaneous  Small  Fruits 

279.  The  species.     These  include: 

(a)  The  dwarf  cherry  {Prunus  Besseyii). 

(b)  The  dwarf  juueberry  {Amelanchier  Canadensis,  var. 
oblong  i/olia). 


The  iSmatl  I'ruits.  181 

(c)  The  buffalo  berry  {Shepherdia  argentea). 

(d)  The  goumi  {Eleagniis  longipes). 

(e)  The  huckleberry  {Gai/lnssacia). 
(£)  The  blueberry  {Vaccininm). 

With,  the  exception  of  the  goumi,  these  are  all  native 
shrubs.  None  of  them  are  as  yet  extensively  cultivated, 
and  thej^  are  of  interest  chiefly  for  their  possibilities  of  im- 
provement. With  the  exception  of  the  last  two  species, 
seedlings  of  these  fruits  may  be  grown  as  directed  for  the 
plum  (104),  and  the  culture  they  require  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  groselles  (233-235).  All  are*  hardy  throughout  the 
United  States  and  Southern  Canada,  except  the  goumi. 

280.  The  dwarf  cherry.  Several  species  of  dwarf  cherry 
are  native  to  the  United  States,  but  the  onl}'  one  cultivated 
to  any  extent  is  the  so-called  dwarf  Rocky  Mountaiu  cherry, 
{Primus  Besseijii).  This  is  a  rather  spreading,  few-stemmed 
shrub,  commonly  growing  about  four  feet  high.  The  fruit, 
which  is  somewhat  heart-shaped,  is  about  three-fourths 
inch  in  longest  diameter.  It  is  black  when  ripe,  slightly 
sweet,  sometimes  a  little  astriugent,  and  ripens  in  August 
and  September.  The  plants  are  very  fruitful,  and  are  orna- 
mental while  in  flower,  and  also  late  in  autumn,  when  the 
willow-like  leaves  assume,  a  rich  scarlet  color.  The  plant 
is  decidedl}'  variable  under  culture. 

281.  Harmful  parasites.  The  dwarf  cherry  is  subject  to 
several  fungous  diseases.  A  mildew  {Podosphcera  oxijcanthce) 
attacks  the  foliage  in  summer,  giving  it  a  whitish  appear- 
ance. Spraying  the  plants  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  or  po- 
tassium sulfide  solution,  would  doubtless  prevent  it.  A 
disease  similar  to  the  leaf  curl  of  the  peach  (123)  also  at- 
tacks this  plant,  and  the  fruit-rot  fungus  (101)  sometimes 
•causes  many  of  the  fruits  to  decay  as  they  are  ripening. 


182  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

282.  The  dwarf  juneberry.  This  fruit  is  allied  botanic- 
ally  to  the  apple.  It  is  extremely  variable  in  the  wild 
state,  and  some  of  its  varieties  attain  the  size  of  a  large 
tree.  The  form  that  has  been  most  cultivated  (variety 
oblongifolia)  is  a  spreading  shrub  that  commonW  grows 
about  three  feet  high.  The  fruit  resembles  that  of  the 
huckleberry  in  form  and  size,  but  is  reddish-purple  in  color. 
It  ripens  in  June  and  July,  is  white-fleshed,  and  has  a  pleas- 
ant but  not  strongly-marked  flavor.  Birds  are  extremely 
fond  of  the  fruit,  which  is  one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles 
to  its  culture. 

283.  The  huffalO-berry.  This  shrub  grows  3  to  6  feet 
high,  bears  narrow,  silvery  leaves,  small,  dioecious  flowers, 
and  scarlet,  acid  fruit  about  the  size  of  huckleberries,  ripen- 
ing late  in  summer.     It  is  little  cultivated. 

284.  The  goumi  is  a  low  shrub,  with  grayish-green  leaves, 
inconspicuous  flowers  and  small,  scarlet,  gold-speckled  fruit 
that  ripens  before  midsummer.  The  fruit  is  too  acid  and 
astringent  for  use  in  its  fresh  state,  but  is  prized  by  some 
for  preserves.  The  plant  is  not  sufiiciently  hardy  for  north- 
ern United  States  unless  protected.  Its  seedlings  are  quite 
delicate,  and  hence  are  rather  difficult  to  grow  to  bearing 
size. 

285.  The  huckleberry  and  blueberry.  The  fruit  of  sev- 
eral species  of  the  huckleberry  and  blueberry  is  rather  ex- 
tensively gathered  from  wild  plants  in  parts  of  northern 
United  States  and  southern  Canada.  These  fruits  do  not 
seem  adapted  to  ordinary  methods  of  culture,  but  they  may 
prove  amenable  to  a  system  resembling  that  employed  for 
the  cranberry.  Their  intrinsic  qualities  certainly  commend 
them  for  market  fruits. 


The  Small  Fruits.  183 

SUMMARY   OF   THE  TWO   PRECEDING   SECTIONS 

1.  The  cranberry  is  partially  aquatic  in  habit.  It  thrives 
in  peat  marshes  that  are  submerged  in  winter,  and  in  which 
the  water  is  a  foot  or  two  below  the  soil  surface  during  the 
warm  season  (265). 

2.  The  cranberry  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  soft-water, 
marshes,  and  in  northern  United  States  and  Canada  (267). 

3.  The  highest  success  in  cranberry  culture  requires  the 
proper  soil  and  abundance  of  soft  water,  with  ability  to 
control  the  water  supply  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  (268). 

4.  Wild  cranberry  marshes  are  sometimes  improved  with- 
out replanting.  The  ground  is  cleared  of  logs,  bushes, 
etc.,  and  provision  is  made  for  controlling  the  water.  The 
fruit  produced  on  such  marshes  is  generally  inferior  in 
quality  (269). 

5.  Ground  for  the  cranberry  should  be  selected  with  ref- 
erence to  air  drainage.  Only  alluvial  or  mucky  soils,  free 
from  clay  or  loam,  are  adapted.  A  mixture  of  coarse  sand 
and  muck,  or  a  layer  of  muck  with  coarse  sand  above  or 
below,  is  best.     The  water  must  not  be  stagnant  (270). 

6.  In  preparing  the  mapsh  for  planting,  a  main  ditch  is 
dug.  about  two  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  muck  layer, 
wide  enough  to  hold  the  marsh  water.  The  turf  is  next 
removed,  and  branch  drains  are  cut  through  the  muck.  A 
layer  of  sand  is  then  often  applied  (271).- 

7.  The  cranberry  is  propagated  from  cuttings  of  the 
young  wood,  planted  in  place,  or,  where  the  marsh  is 
covered  with  water,  the  cuttings  may  be  sown  broadcast, 
without  other  planting  (272). 

8.  The  cranberry  marsh  needs  little  attention  during 
the  growing  season  except  to  control  the  water  supply  and 
destroy  harmful  insects  (273). 


184  Zessons  in  truit  G7'0ivin^. 

9.  Flooding  tlie  cranberry  marsh  at  certain  times  is 
necessary  to  maintain  health  of  the  vines  and  prevent 
frost  and  insect  attacks.  Bearing  plantations  should  be 
under  water  from  the  close  of  growth  in  autumn  until 
after  the  frost  season  in  spring  (STi). 

10.  Picking  the  cranberry  should  commence  when  the 
fruit  is  well  colored.  Fruit  of  early  and  later  varieties 
should  not  be  mixed.  Cranberries  keep  best  in  somewhat 
open  boxes  (275). 

11.  The  black-headed  and  yellow-headed  cranberry 
worms  are  held  in  check  by  controlling  the  water  or  by 
spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  (276). 

12.  The  fruit  worm  is  combated  by  spraying  with  water 
containing  Paris  green  or  by  setting  lighted  lamps  over 
vessels  of  water  at  night  (277). 

SUGGESTIOlSrS    FOR    LABORATORY    WORK 

1.  If  a  cranberry  marsh  is  sufficiently  near,  have  the 
students  visit  it  and  study  the  methods  of  culture,  includ- 
ing the  system  of  water  supply,  and  the  characteristics  of 
the  plants. 

2.  Study  as  many  of  the  miscellaneous  small  fruits 
named  in  section  5  as  can  be  found  in  the  vicinity,  and 
make  such  experiments  in  their  culture  as  the  season  per- 
mits. 


The  Storage  and  Preservation  of  Fruit.         185 
CHAPTER  V 

THE  STORAGE  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  FRUIT 
Section  1  —  The  Storage  of  Fruit 

286.  Definition  and  aim  of  storagfe.  More  or  less  time 
generally  intervenes  between  the  gathering  of  fruit  and  its 
departure  to  the  market  or  transportation  company.  This 
interval  may  vary  in  length  from  a  few  minutes  to  several 
months.  The  fruit,  meanwhile,  must  be  well  cared  for  or 
it  will  deteriorate  more  or  less  rapidly.  Storage,  to  the 
commercial  fruit  grower,  means  the  care  of  the  fruit  during 
this  interval.  The  storage  of  fresh  fruit  is  a  more  com- 
plicated problem  than  the  storage  of  ordinary  merchandise, 
because  fresh  fruit  tends  constantly  to  undergo  changes  in 
the  direction  of  decay.  The  aim  of  storage  is  generally  to 
hold  these  changes  in  check,  so  far  as  possible.  A  knowl- 
edge of  the  conditions  affecting  these  changes  is,  therefore, 
necessary  to  the  proper  management  of  fruit  in  storage. 

287.  The  maturity  of  fruits,  i.  e.,  the  changes  in  their 
texture  and  flavor  that  render  them  pleasing  and  whole- 
some as  food,  is  a  step  in  the  direction  of  decomposition. 
These  changes  increase  in  activity,  within  certain  limits, 
as  the  temperature  rises.  During  these  changes  most  fruits 
give  off  water  rapidly,  hence,  when  confined  in  packages, 
the  air  between  the  fruits  tends  to  become  saturated  with 
water.  Normal  fruit  does  not  usually  decay  until  the  last 
stage  of  maturity  is  reached. 

288.  Conditions  affecting:  decay  in  fruits.  The  juices  of 
fruits  furnish  most  favorable  conditions  for  the  rapid  de- 
velopment and  multiplication  of  bacteria.     The  unbroken 


186  Zessons  in  Fruit  Grovnng. 

skin  of  fruits,  however,  tends  to  prevent  the  access  of  bac- 
teria or  their  spores  to  the  juices  beneath.  It  follows  that 
the  least  breakage  of  the  skin  of  a  fruit  invites  rapid  decay. 
Moisture  on  the  skin  of  a  fruit  favors  the  germination  of 
the  spores  of  bacteria,  and  hence  promotes  decay.  A  moist 
atmosphere  is  probably  not,  in  itself,  detrimental  to  the- 
keeping  of  fruit,  but  it  endangers  dampening  of  the  skin. 
A  low  temperature  retards  decay  because  it  retards  both 
the  ripening  of  fruit  and  the  multiplication  of  bacteria. 

289.  How  to  promote  the  keeping  of  fruit.  From  the 
three  preceding  paragraphs  it  is  evident  that  the  keeping 
of  fruit  is  promoted,  (a)  by  gathering  the  fruit  before  it  is 
fully  mature,  (b)  by  avoiding  breakage  of  the  skin,  (c)  b^'" 
gathering  the  fruit  when  it  is  dry  and  keeping  it  dry,  and 
(d)  by  placing  it  in  a  temperature  low  enough  to  retard  it& 
maturity  and  the  development  of  bacteria. 

290.  Fruit  may  become  moist  in  storage.  When  a  pack- 
age of  warm  fruit  is  placed  in  a  cool  apartment  the  air  be- 
tween the  fruits  in  the  package  may  become  so  far  saturated 
with  moisture  before  the  fruit  cools  to  the  temperature  of 
the  room,  that  a  part  of  its  moisture  will  be  condensed 
upon  the  skin  of  the  fruit.  This  must  happen  if  the  tem- 
perature of  the  apartment  is  as  low  as  the  dew  point 
of  the  air  in  the  package.  The  warmer  the  fruit  is,  and  the 
cooler  the  apartment,  the  greater  is  the  danger  of  the  fruit 
becoming  damp.  Fruit  thus  dampened  is  slow  to  become 
dry,  unless  it  is  removed  from  the  package.  Wrapping  the 
fruits  individually  in  absorbent  paper  tends  to  prevent  the 
injurious  condensation  of  water. 

To  prevent  fruit  from  becoming  moist  in  the  package, 
it  is  probably  best  to  carry  it  as  fast  as  gathered  to  a  cool,, 
dry  room,  and  expose  it  to  the  air,  in  the  vessels  in  which 


The  Storage  and  Preservation  of  Fruit.        187 

it  -was  picked,  until  it  becomes  as  cool  as  the  room.  The 
cool  temperature  will  check  the  passing  off  of  moisture 
from  the  fruit,  and  the  dry  air  of  the  room  will  absorb  the 
moisture  as  it  is  given  off.  Dryness  of  the  air  in  this  room 
may  be  promoted,  if  need  be,  b\'  exposing  baskets  of  un- 
slacked  lime.  When  the  fruit  has  become  as  cool  as  the 
room,  it  may  be  packed  in  dry  packages,  and  the  packed 
fruit  may  remain  in  the  room  until  it  is  desired  to  remove 
it.  If  to  be  kept  some  time,  it  would  better  be  removed  to 
a  second  room  in  which  the  air  is  less  dry  than  in  the  first 
apartment. 

291.  Fruit  may  become  moist  when  removed  from  stor- 
age. When  a  loose  package  of  cold  fruit  is  brought  from 
the  storage  room  into  a  warmer  atmosphere,  moisture  will 
be  condensed  upon  the  fruit  and  the  package  whenever  the 
temperature  of  the  latter  is  lower  than  the  dew  point  of 
the  atmosphere.  The  fruit  thus  becomes  damp  and  warm 
at  the  same  time,  which  tends  to  rapid  decay.  If  the  pack- 
age is  tight,  however,  this  will  not  occur,  because  the  air 
between  the  fruits  in  the  package,  as  it  becomes  warm, 
will  tend  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  fruit,  while  the 
moisture  from  the  external  air  will  be  condensed  on  the 
outside  of  the  package. 

To  prevent  fruit  from  becoming  damp  when  removed 
from  cold  storage,  therefore,  it  is  only  necessary  to  wrap 
the  package  in  impervious  cloth  until  the  package  and  its 
contents  become  as  warm  as  the  external  air.  This  pre- 
caution is,  however,  seldom  taken. 

292.  The  kind  of  storage  used  by  the  fruit  grower  will 
of  course  depend  much  upon  circumstances.  As  a  rule, 
only  those  fruit  growers  who  are  located  near  a  city  of  suf- 
ficient size  to  support  a  commercial  cold-storage  house  will 


188  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

be  able  to  use  artificial  refrigeration.  Those  so  located 
may  often  store  their  fruit  for  a  time  with  profit,  since  the 
storage  rates  are  generally  reasonable.  Forty  cents  per 
barrel  is  commonly  charged  for  storiug  apples  from  autumn 
until  May  1st,  and  it  seldom  happens  that  fruit  does  not 
advance  in  price  more  than  that  by  March  1st,  while  a  rise 
of  Si  or  even  $1.50  per  barrel  is  not  infrequent.  Some- 
times an  arrangement  can  be  made  by  which  the  grower 
can  take  out  and  sell  portions  of  his  fruit  from  time  to 
time,  thus  dispensing  with  the  services  of  the  middleman. 

293.  Only  sound  fruit  will  repay  cold  stora§:e.  Only 
fruit  that  is  free  from  blemishes  and  somewhat  hard  when 
packed  can  be  depended  upon  to  keep  in  cold  storage. 
The  folly  of  investing  storage  charges  in  bruised,  soft,  and 
insect-eaten  fruit  has  been  demonstrated  by  many  trials. 

294.  Co-operative  storage  houses  in  fruit-growing  dis- 
tricts have  been  suggested,  but  they  are  likely  to  prove 
satisfactory  only  when  the  amount  of  fruit  available  is 
sufiiciently  large  to  warrant  a  modern  refrigerating  equip- 
ment and  the  services  of  a  competent  manager  (19).  The 
large,  city  storage-house  has  advantages  due  to  its  loca- 
tion. Fruit  can  be  delivered  therefrom  to  purchasers  in 
all  kinds  of  weather,  and  if  on  the  seaboard,  it  may  be 
withdrawn  for  shipment  at  any  time.  On  the  other  hand, 
fruit  necessarily  taken  from  the  tree  in  warm  weather  can 
be  placed  in  the  co-operative  storage-house  much  sooner 
than  in  the  city  storage-house.  A  co-operative  storage- 
house  in  the  country  may  sometimes  be  combined  with  a 
creamery  storage-house,  to  the  advantage  of  all  concerned. 

Section  2  —  The  Preservation  of  Fruits 

295.  The  preservation  of  fruit,  as  here  used,  means  the 
submitting  of  fresh  fruit  to  some  process' by  which  decay 


The  Storage  and  Preservation  of  Fruit.        189 

is  prevented.  While  the  preservation  of  fruit  has  no  nec- 
essarj^  connection  with  its  production,  the  fruit  grower 
often  finds  it  convenient  to  emplo}^  preservative  methods 
for  a  portion  of  his  products.  As  competition  in  fruit 
growing  increases,  the  market  demand  for  the  poorer 
grades  of  fruit  is  sure  to  diminish.  A  certain  amount  of 
poor  fruit  is  inevitahle,  where  fruits  are  grown  at  all,  and 
at  certain  times  the  market  cannot  use  all  the  good  fruit 
that  is  offered.  To  avoid  loss,  at  such  times,  the  grower 
may  be  obliged  to  practice  some  method  of  preserving  a 
part  of  his  fruits.  A  few  hints  upon  the  preservation  of 
fruits  are  therefore  given. 

296.  The  methods  of  preserving:  fruits  may  be  referred 
to  five,  viz: 

(a)  Expelling  a  sufiicient  portion  of  water  from  the  fruit 
{dri/ing  or  evaporating),  so  that  the  bacteria  of  putrefaction 
are  unable  to  live  upon  it. 

(b)  Boiling  the  fruit  in  sealed  vessels  {canning),  which 
destroys  the  spores  of  bacteria  already'  in  contact  with  the 
fruit,  and  shuts  out  all  others. 

(c)  Replacing  the  juice  of  the  fruit  with  sugar  syrup 
{c r  1/ stall izat ion),  which  renders  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  un- 
congenial to  bacteria  or  their  spores. 

(d)  Boiling  the  fruit  with  sugar  until  the  juices  are  suffi- 
ciently concentrated  to  retard  or  prevent  decay,  as  in  jams, 
marmalades  and  fruit  butters. 

(e)  Treating  the  expressed  juice  of  the  fruit  to  preserva- 
tive methods,  as  in  jelly  or  unfermented  grape  juice,  or  per- 
mitting it  to  ferment  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  as  in  cider, 
wine,  vinegar,  etc. 

All  these  methods  of  preserving  fruits  have  become  im- 
portant industries  in  certain  sections.     In  this  connection 


190  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

it  is  only  practicable  to  state  tlie  principles  that  control 
the  different  processes.  The  beginner  can  hardly  master 
any  of  the  methods  without  experienced  aid,  but  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  fruit  grower  should  know  the  available 
means  for  preserving  his  fruits,  and  sufficient  of  the  prin- 
ciples governing  them  to  enable  him  to  form  an  intelli- 
gent estimate  of  the  apparatus  needed  for  the  different 
processes. 

29  (T.  Preserving:  fruits  by  drying.  In  warm  countries 
having  a  comparatively  dry  atmosphere,  fruit  is  largely 
dried  by  direct  exposure  to  solar  heat,  and,  with  proper 
care,  excellent  results  are  secured  by  this  method.  The 
fruit  is  placed  upon  tight-bottomed  trays  made  of  thin 
lumber,  and  these  are  placed  on  the  ground  or  upon  low 
stagings,  in  a  location  free  as  possible  from  dust.  The 
fruit  is  protected  from  rains  and  dews  by  piling  the  trays 
one  upon  another,  or  by  covering  with  cloth  or  paper. 
Sometimes  heavy  paper  is  substituted  for  wood  for  the 
bottom  of  the  trays,  or  sheets  of  heavy  oiled  paper  are 
used  instead  of  trays. 

In  cool  climates,  the  best  quality  of  dried  fruit  can  only 
be  secured  by  the  use  of  artificial  heat  (evaporation). 

298.  Fruit  evaporation  is  a  process  now  extensively  used 
for  drying  fruit.  The  fruit  is  spread  upon  trays  having  a 
slatted  or  sieve-like  bottom,  and  is  exposed  to  a  current  of  hot 
air,  generated  either  directly  by  a  furnace,  or  indirectly  by  a 
system  of  steam  pipes.  The  trays  are  usually  arranged  one 
above  another,  in  a  vertical  or  inclined  shaft  provided  with 
an  elevating  apj)aratus  by  which  the  trays  may  be  raised 
through  the  shaft  at  intervals.  The  trays  containing  the 
fresh  fruit  are  inserted  at  the  lower  end  of  the  shaft,  di- 
rectly over  the  heat  generator,  and  as  each  new  tray  is 


The  Storage  and  Preservation  of  Fruit.         191 

slipped  in,  all  i^reviously  inserted  are  elevated  a  short  dis- 
tance. By  the  time  the  shaft  is  filled  to  the  top  with  the 
"trays  of  fruit,  those  first  put  in  are  sufiiciently  dry  to  re- 
move. 

Trays  made  of  galvanized  iron  are  objectionable  owing 
to  the  liability  of  the  zinc  to  become  detached  and  mingled 
with  the  fruit.  Those  made  wholly  of  wood,  or  with  the 
bottom  of  non-metallic  netting,  obviate  this  objection  while 
adding  the  one  of  combustibility. 

Fruit  evaporators  are  now  made  of  various  styles,  though 
differing  chiefly  in  minor  details,  and  of  sizes  varying  from 
the  cook-stove  evaporator,  intended  to  dry  but  a  bushel  or 
two  of  fruit  per  day,  to  mammoth  machines  drying  hun- 
dreds of  bushels  in  the  same  time.  Apples,  peaches  and 
raspberries  are  chiefly  evaporated  in  the  east;  prunes,  plums 
and  apricots  are  extensively  evaporated  in  the  Pacific  states. 
The  finer  grades  of  the  larger  fruits  are  evaporated  only 
when  prices  are  very  low.  The  smaller  evaporators  can 
be  operated  with  profit  only  where  labor  is  very  cheap. 

The  superiority  of  evaporated  over  sun-dried  fruits  is 
now  generally  recognized  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

Sulfiu-infi  the  whiter-fleshed  fruits,  to  prevent  discolor- 
ation of  the  cut  surfaces,  is  largely  practiced  both  in  sun- 
drying  and  evaporating  fruits.  The  fruit,  after  having 
been  prepared  for  drying,  is  treated  for  a  short  time  to  the 
fumes  of  burning.sulfur.  This  prevents  discoloration,  and 
in.  a  measure  restores  the  whiteness  of  parts  already  dis- 
colored. It  is  usually  performed  in  a  sort  of  cabinet  with- 
out bottom,  made  of  matched  lumber,  with  openings  for 
dampers  at  the  top  and  below,  and  with  a  door  which  in- 
cludes the  whole  of  one  side.  The  cabinet  should  be  of  a 
length  corresponding  to  the  length  of  the  trays,  and  of  a 


192  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

width  a  little  more  than  that  of  the  trays.  Into  this  cab- 
inet, the  trays  slide  on  cleats,  as  drawers  slide  into  a 
bureau.  Each  altei*nate  tray  is  pushed  clear  in,  thus  leav- 
ing a  little  space  next  to  the  door,  and  the  others  are 
pushed  in  only  far  enough  to  permit  the  door  to  close. 
This  makes  a  zigzag  flue  for  the  sulfur  fumes,  which  pass 
alternately  back  and  forth  between  the  trays.  The  sulfur 
may  be  burned  in  a  pit  in  the  ground  beneath  the  cabinet, 
or  in  a  little  furnace  outside,  the  fumes  being  conducted 
in  through  a  pipe.  The  dampers  mentioned  above  should 
be  opened  until  the  cabinet  becomes  filled  with  the  fumes, 
and  then  tightly  closed.  A  convenient  method  of  handling 
the  sulfur  is  to  dip  strips  of  cheese  cloth  or  other  cheap 
cotton  fabric  in  the  melted  substance  for  a  moment,  and, 
when  these  are  cool,  the  desired  amount  may  be  torn  off, 
lighted,  and  placed  in  the  pit  or  furnace.  The  length  of 
exposure  depends  on  the  kind  and  condition  of  the  fruit 
and  must  be  learned  by  experience.  It  should  not  be 
longer  than  is  necessary.  Thirty  minutes  may  suffice,  or 
sixty  may  be  required. 

The  sulfuring  of  fruit  has  often  been  condemned  on  san- 
itary grounds,  but  is  not  likely  to  be  abandoned  so  long 
as  purchasers  prefer  the  sulfured  article.  Sulfuring  before 
drying,  and  only  sufficient  to  secure  bleaching,  does  not 
render  the  fruit  unwholesome,  though  it  does  detract  some- 
what from  its  natural  flavor.  Sulfuring  after  drying  may, 
however,  render  the  fruit  positively  unwholesome.  Sul- 
fured fruit  does  not  readily  absorb  water,  and,  unless  first 
soaked  for  several  hours  in  cool  water,  does  not  swell  up 
to  its  normal  bulk  in  cooking,  and  is  comparatively  tough 
and  indigestible  when  cooked. 

Prunes   are   often  dipped  in   a  weak  boiling  lye  (one 


The  Storage  and  Preservation  of  Fruit.         193 

pound  concentrated  lye  to  20  gallons  of  water),  or  passed 
through  a  "pricking"  machine  before  drying  to  break  the 
skin  in  many  places.  These  treatments  hasten  the  drying 
and  improve  the  appearance  and  flavor  of  the  dried  prod- 
uct. 

The  amount  of  drjnng  required  difiers  with  difierent 
fruits,  and  must  be  learned  largely  by  experience.  It  is 
neither  necessary  nor  desirable  that  all  of  the  water  should 
be  driven  off.  The  color  and  feeling  of  the  fruit  guides 
the  expert.  When  sufficiently  dry,  the  fruit  is  removed 
from  the  trays,  assorted  and  sifted,  if  need  be,  to  remove 
dust,  etc.,  when  it  is  placed  in  boxes  or  piles  for  sweating^ 
during  which  the  remaining  moisture  equalizes  through 
the  mass.  The  fruit  should  be  turned  occasionally  to  fa- 
cilitate this  process.  If  packed  before  sweating,  injury 
may  result.  The  fruit  is  often  dipped  for  a  moment  in 
boiling  water  or  highly  heated  a  few  moments  in  a  close 
chamber  before  the  final  packing,  to  destroy  insect  eggs 
and  render  it  pliable,  after  which  it  is  covered  in  a  dark 
room  for  twenty-four  hours.  Prunes  are  commonly  glossed 
by  dipping  them,  after  drying,  in  hot  water  containing 
pure  glycerine  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  20  gallons; 
sometimes  they  are  exposed  to  steam  heat,  as  a  substitute 
for  the  hot  water. 

299.  Packing:  dried  fruits.  Dried  fruit  is  commonly 
packed  in  wood  boxes,  which  are  often  lined  with  thin 
paper,  and  the  larger  fruits,  especially  all  that  are  cut  into 
sections  in  preparation,  are  faced  in  the  package,  i.  e., 
the  first  fruits  or  sections  put  into  the  box  are  placed  in 
regular  rows,  which  often  overlap  one  another  like  the  shin- 
gles on  a  roof.  Sections  of  the  stone  fruits,  as  the  peach, 
and  apricot,  are  usually  placed  with  the  stone  side  down. 
13 


194  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

Sometimes  the  sections  are  first  flattened  out  by  running' 
them  through  a  clothes  wringer  or  a  siuiilar  pair  of  rollers. 
After  a  layer  is  thus  formed  over  the  bottom,  a  frame  of 
the  proper  dimensions  is  placed  upon  the  box,  to  tempo- 
rarily increase  its  depth,  when  the  amount  of  fruit  the  box 
is  to  contain  is  poured  in,  and  pressure  is  applied  until  the 
bottom  can  be  nailed  on.  The  box  is  then  inverted  and 
branded  or  labeled  on  the  faced  side. 

Dried  fruit  is  also  sometimes  packed  in  cotton  sacks. 
These  cost  less  than  boxes,  which  is  perhaps  the  only  ar- 
gument in  their  favor. 

,  300.  Preserving  fruits  by  canning:.  Fruit  for  canning 
should  be  of  good  quality  and  well  ripened.  It  may  be 
placed  in  the  can  either  before  or  after  boiling.  In  the 
former  case  the  greater  part  of  the  boiling  is  performed 
before  sealing,  enough  being  given  after  sealing  to  insure 
the  destruction  of  any  spores  that  may  have  entered  dur- 
ing the  sealing  process.  In  the  latter  case,  the  cans,  hav- 
ing been  first  treated  to  boiling  water  to.  destroy  any  ad- 
hering spores,  are  filled  with  the  boiling-hot  fruit,  and 
sealed  at  once. 

Canned  fruit  can  only  spoil  from  imperfect  sealing,  from 
boiling  an  insufficient  time  to  destroy  all  spores  of  bacteria, 
or  from  insufficient  exposure  to  heat  after  sealing.  Sugar 
or  syrup  is  not  essential  to  the  keeping  of  canned  fruit.  In 
point  of  economy,  the  sweetening  might  wisely  be  de- 
ferred until  the  time  of  serving,  since  a  part  of  the  sugar 
is  changed  to  glucose  if  cooked  with  the  fruit.  This  de- 
tracts from  its  sweetening  power.  Many  prefer,  however, 
to  add  the  sugar  or  syrup  wholly  or  in  part  before  cook- 
ing, as  the  flavor  of  the  product  is  thereby  improved. 

Alum  is  sometimes   used  in    canning  fruit  to  prevent 


The  Storage  and  Preservation  of  Fruit.        195 

l)reali:ing  down  of  the  pulp  —  a  practice  to  be  emphatically 
•condemned  on  sanitary  grounds. 

Fresh  cider  and  grape  juice  are  often  preserved  by  the 
xianning  method,  either  in  cans  or  bottles.  Thus  prepared 
they  are  refreshing  and  wholesome  drinks.  Bottled  fresh 
■grape  juice  is  now  a  commercial  product  of  considerable 
importance. 

301.  Preserving:  fruits  by  crystallization.  In  this  pro- 
-cess  the  syrup  with  which  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  is  filled  pre- 
vents the  development  of  bacteria,  and  thus  preserves  the 
fruit  without  destroying  its  form  or  consistency.  The  well- 
ripened  fruit  is  immersed  in  boiling  water  long  enough  to 
•extract  the  juice  without  softening  the  pulp,  after  which 
it  is  covered  in  earthen  pans  with  a  syrup  of  white  sugar, 
of  which  the  density  is  varied  to  suit  the  firmness  of  the 
fruit,  until  fermentation  reaches  a  certain  stage  —  usually 
about  a  \,'eek.  The  fruit  and  syrup  are  then  heated  to 
•boiling,  which  checks  the  fermentation,  and  the  fruit  is 
left  in  the  syrup  for  about  six  weeks,  the  mass  being  re- 
lieated  as  often  as  necessary  to  stay  fermentation.  The 
fruit  is  then  removed  from  the  syrup,  washed  in  clean 
water,  dipped  again  in  a  thick  sugar  syrup  and  exposed  to 
the  air  until  the  syrup  hardens,  after  which  it  is  ready  for 
packing,  and  will  keep  well  in  any  climate.  Crystallized 
fruits  are  oiten  called  ''  candied  "  fruits. 

302.  Fruit  jams  or  marmalades  are  made  by  boiling  the 
fruit  in  water  until  thoroughly  tender,  pressing  the  pulp 
■through  a  colander,  then  adding  sugar  in  quantity  depend- 
ing upon  the  fruit,  and  again  boiling  until  the  desired  con- 
centration is  reached.  Jams  are  made  from  the  smaller  and 
more  tender  fruits,  as  berries,  and  marmalades  from  the 
larger  and  firmer  fruits,  as  the  apple,  quince,  orange,  etc. 


196  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

Fruit  butters  resemble  marmalades,  except  that  spices 
are  often  added.  In  apple  butter,  the  fruit  is  stewed  in 
boiled  cider. 

303.  Jellies  differ  from  jams  and  marmalades  in  being 
formed  from  the  juice  of  the  fruit  instead  of  the  pulp,  and 
hence  may  be  made  from  imperfect  fruit,  or  from  the  skins 
and  cores.  The  jellies  of  commerce  are  too  often  grossly 
adulterated. 

Jams,  marmalades  and  jellies,  being  made  rich  with 
sugar,  keep  a  considerable  time  if  excluded  from  the  air  and 
stored  in  a  cool  place.  They  may  be  kept  indefinitely  by 
canning.  Special  appliances  for  their  manufacture  on  a 
large  scale  are  on  the  market. 

304.  Cider  is  the  expressed  juice  of  the  apple,  either  fresh 
or  partially  fermented.  Fresh  cider  soon  undergoes  fermen- 
tation unless  submitted  to  preservative  methods,  at  first  de- 
veloping a  small  percentage  of  alcohol  (vinous  fermenta- 
tion) which  later  changes  to  acetic  acid  (vinegar).  Cider  is 
used  as  a  beverage  and,  after  boiling  to  the  consistency  of 
thin  syrup,  for  fruit  sauces,  mince  pies,  etc.  It  may  also 
be  made  into  jelly  (303). 

305.  Apples  suitable  for  cider.  The  quality  of  cider,  either 
for  drinking  or  vinegar,  depends  much  upon  the  propor- 
tion of  saccharine  matters  it  contains,  and  this  depends  in 
a  measure  upon  the  ripeness  of  the  apples  used.  As  a  rule, 
the  better  the  apple  the  batter  the  cider,  but  some  crabs 
and  russets,  that  are  little  prized  for  dessert,  make  the  best 
of  cider.  Sweet  apples  are  not  always  superior  to  sub-acid 
ones  for  cider;  watery  and  flavorless  apples  are  poorest. 

306.  Care  of  cider  apices.  Apples  intended  for  cider  are 
preferably  stored  in  a  dry,  airy  place,  where  they  will  tend 
to  ripen,  and  their  juices  will  tend  to  evaporate.     Flavors 


The  Storage  and  Preservation  of  Fruit.         197 

absorbed  by  apples  are  likely  to  be  retained  in  the  cider, 
hence  apples  intended  for  cider  should  not  be  in  contact 
with  the  soil  nor  with  any  musty  or  unclean  material.  If 
soiled  when  gathered,  they  should  be  washed,  and  all  decay- 
ing fruits  should  be  rejected. 

30r.  Manufacture  of  cider.  The  apples  are  reduced  to 
pulp  in  a  mill  made  expressly  for  the  purpose,  and  the 
juice  is  expressed  from  the  pulp  (pomace)  by  means  of 
heavy  screws  or  levers.  Mills  and  presses  are  now  on  the 
market  of  capacities  varying  from  the  smallest  farm  mill, 
operated  by  hand  and  producing  a  single  barrel  of  cider 
per  day,  to  the  large  power  mill  that  turns  out  hundreds 
of  barrels  in  the  same  time.  The  hand  mills  are  generally 
combined  with  small  presses.  They  are  not  economical, 
as  their  operation  requires  much  labor,  and  their  presses 
extract  less  of  the  cider  than  do  the  larger  presses. 

The  pulping  machines  are  of  two  general  classes.  In 
one,  the  fruit  is  crushed  into  pulp;  in  the  other  it  is  scraped 
or  grated  into  pulp.  Certain  French  experiments  indicate 
that  machines  of  the  latter  class  yield  the  larger  percentage 
of  cider.  The  best  machines  are  said  to  extract  but  about 
60  per  cent,  of  the  juice  of  apples.  For  pressing,  the  pulp 
is  built  up  into  a  '^  cheese"  formed  of  thin  layers,  separated 
by  layers  of  straw,  or  in  the  more  modern  mills,  the  layers 
of  pulp  are  wrapped  individually  in  coarse  cloth  and  sep- 
arated by  wood  racks.  After  pressing,  the  cheese  is  some- 
times taken  down  and  rebuilt,  adding  water  freely  to  the 
pomace,  and  pressed  a  second  time,  the  product  of  the  sec- 
ond pressing  being  used  for  vinegar  or  jelly.  Finally,  the 
apple  seeds  may  be  washed  out  of  the  pomace  for  sale,  and 
the  residue  applied  to  the  compost  heap.  Sometimes  the 
pomace  is  broken  up  into  small  pieces  and  planted  for  the 
production  of  apple  seedlings. 


19S  Zessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

308.  Filtration  of  cider.  Cider  to  be  used  for  drinl^iug- 
should  he  filtered  to  remove  particles  of  pulp,  skin,  seeds,, 
etc.,  which  give  it  a  more  or  less  turbid  appearance,  and 
hasten  fermentation.  Large  filters,  for  the  rapid  filtration 
of  cider,  are  on  the  market.  Those  in  which  the  cider  passes 
through  sand  or  clay  are  generally  objectionable,  as  they 
tend  to  impart  an  earthy  flavor. 

A  filter  for  a  small  amount  of  cider  may  be  made  as  fol- 
lows: bore  a  half-inch  hole  through  the  bottom  of  a  wood 
pail,  and  into  this  insert  a  short  wood  tube,  projecting 
downward.  Then  spread  over  the  bottom  of  the  pail,  in- 
side, circular  pieces  of  clean-washed  and  dried  cotton  wad- 
ding, cut  to  fit  the  pail,  until,  when  pressed  down,  they 
cover  the  bottom  of  the  pail  to  the  depth  of  3  or  4  inches. 
Cover  the  wadding  with  2  or  3  inches  of  clean  quartz  peb- 
bles about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  to  keep  it  closelj^ 
pressed.  When  clogged  by  use,  the  top  layer  of  wadding 
can  be  replaced  by  a  new  one,  or  all  of  the  wadding  can  be 
washed.  Cider  to  be  filtered  should  first  be  strained  through 
a  very  fine  strainer. 

309.  Cider  vinegar.  Dilute  alcohol  containing  the  vin- 
egar ferment  {Mycodenna  aceti),  exposed  to  the  air  at  a. 
suitable  temperature,  changes  to  acetic  acid  (vinegar),  hence 
cider,  after  developing  alcohol,  tends  to  become  vinegar. 
The  more  thorough  the  exposure  of  the  cider  to  the  air,  and 
the  higher  temperature,  within  certain  limits,  the  more 
rapidly  does  the  change  take  place.  About  95°  F.  is  the 
optimum  temperature  for  economical  results.  Cider  should 
have  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.04  to  make  first-class  vin- 
egar; that  of  higher  specific  gravity  may  be  diluted  with 
water  or  weaker  cider;  that  of  lower  may  be  reinforced  by 
the  addition  of  crude  glucose. 


The  Storage  and  Preservation  of  Fruit.        199 

Vinegar  is  often  made  on  the  farm  by  storing  barrels 
nearly  filled  with  fresh  cider,  with  their  bung  open,  in  the 
cellar  from  autumn  until  the  following  spring,  when  the 
barrels  are  removed  to  an  outbuilding  or  a  shaded  place  in 
the  open  air.  The  cider  is  stirred  occasionally  by  a  stick 
inserted  through  the  bunghole.  The  vinegar  develops 
much  faster  if  the  barrels  are  stored  during  winter  in  a 
warm  room.  The  acidity  of  vinegar  made  in  this  way 
varies  greatly  owing  to  variation  in  the  richness  of  the  cider 
used.  Cider  from  early  and  watery  apples  will  not  make 
strong  vinegar. 

310.  Rapid  §:eneratioii  of  vinegar.  Slightly  fermented 
cider  may  be  changed  to  vinegar  in  a  few  hours  by  permit- 
ting it  to  trickle  into  a  tank  filled  with  beech  shavings, 
through  which  air  circulates  freely.  The  air  is  admitted 
through  holes  in  the  side  of  the  tank,  and  the  vinegar  col- 
lects in  the  bottom,  whence  it  is  syphoned  off  to  another 
vessel.  Sometimes  corn-cobs  are  used  instead  of  beech 
shavings.  Any  material  that  spreads  the  cider  out  into 
thin  sheets  and  that  imparts  no  flavor  to  it  will  answer. 
Special  generators  for  making  vinegar  b)^  this  method  are 
on  the  market,  and  when  carefully  managed,  they  give  good 
results. 

311.  Wine  is  the  expressed  (and  generally  fermented) 
juice  of  the  grape  and  certain  other  fruits.  The  wiues  of 
commerce  are  almost  exclusively  made  from  grapes,  though 
foreign  materials  are  sometimes  added.  The  manufacture 
of  wine  is  an  art  quite  beyond  the  scope  of  a  book  of  this 
sort.  Grape  growers  sometimes  convert  all  or  a  portion 
of  their  crop  into  wine,  disposing  of  the  unfinished  prod- 
uct to  professional  wine  makers.  A  few  hints  upon  the 
first  steps  of  wine-making  are  therefore  given. 


200  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growi 


ng. 


312.  Maturity  of  grapes  for  wine.  The  riper  grapes  are, 
the  more  fully  is  their  characteristic  flavor  developed,  and 
the  more  sugar  and  the  less  acid  do  they  contain.  Grapes 
free  from  foxiness  ^  should  be  permitted  to  become  fully 
ripe  before  gathering  (208);  foxy  varieties  are  preferably 
gathered  as  soon  as  they  are  well  colored. 

The  evidences  of  ripeness  in  grapes  are:  (a)  the  browning 
and  shriveling  of  the  stems;  (b)  the  shriveling  of  the  berry 
about  the  stem;  (c)  the  thinness  and  transparency  of  the 
skin;  (d)  the  sweetness  and  hone3'-like  consistency  of  the 
juice. 

313.  The  kind  of  wine  made  will  depend  much  upon  the 
method.  Light-colored,  smooth  wines  are  made  by  ex- 
pressing the  juice  soon  after  the  mashing  of  the  grapes; 
darker  aud  harsher  wines  are  made  by  permitting  the 
mashed  grapes  to  ferment  more  or  less  before  pressing. 
White  wines  cannot,  however,  be  made  from  grapes  with 
dark-colored  juice,  nor  can  verj'  dark  wines  be  made  from 
white  grapes  without  artificial  coloring.  An  excess  of  acid 
in  the  unfermented  juice  (must)  maybe  corrected  by  the 
addition  of  water,  aud  the  proper  sweetness  may  be  gained 
by  adding  sugar.  There  is,  however,  a  peculiar  and  delicate 
aroma  in  wines  from  perfectly  ripened  grapes  that  cannot 
be  artificially  produced. 

314.  The  manufacture  of  wine  on  a  moderate  scale  re- 
quires less  expensive  apparatus  than  the  making  of  cider, 
unless  the  wine  is  carried  to  the  later  stages  of  fermenta- 
tion, in  Avhich  case  a  special  cellar  is  required.  The  grapes, 
which  should  be  freed  from  all  unripe  or  decayed  berries, 
and  all  superfluous  stems,  are  mashed  by  passing  them  be- 

'  Foxiness  is  the  coarse,  sour  taste  characteristic  of  some  varieties  o£  Amer- 
ican grapes,  notably  those  derived  from  Vlils  lubrusca  (,180). 


Sumiaanj  of  the  Preceding  Chapter.  201 

tween  rollers,  after  which  the  juice  is  expressed  much  cas 
iu  cider  making.  The  power  required  in  mashing  and 
pressing  grapes  is  less  than  in  the  making  of  cider.  Few 
special  appliances  are  necessary. 

SUMMARY   OF   THE   PRECEDING   CHAPTER. 

1.  Storage,  to  the  fruit  grower,  means  the  care  of  fruit 
from  its  gathering  to  its  removal  to  the  market  or  trans- 
portation company  (286). 

2.  The  maturity  of  fruit  is  a  step  in  the  direction  of 
decay  (287). 

3.  Moisture  on  the  skin  of  fruits  in  storage,  and  especially 
breakage  of  the  skin,  invite  decay  (288). 

4.  The  keeping  of  fruit  is  promoted  by  gathering  it 
slightly  immature,  avoiding  injury  to  the  skin,  keeping  the 
skin  dry,  and  placing  the  fruit  in  a  low  temperature  (289). 

5.  Fruit  may  become  moist  during  storage,  and  on  re- 
moval from  storage,  unless  care  is  taken  to  prevent  it  (290, 
291). 

6.  Commercial  cold-storage  may  often  be  profitably  used 
by  the  fruit  grower,  especially  for  the  longer-keeping  fruits 
of  the  best  quality  (292,  293). 

7.  A  co-operative  storage  house  is  not  likely  to  prove 
satisfactory  unless  the  amount  of  fruit  grown  contiguous 
to  the  house  is  large  (294). 

8.  Fruits  may  be  preserved  by  dr3-ing,  canning,  crystal- 
lization, boiling  with  sugar,  and  by  expressing  and  treating 
the  juices  (296). 

9.  In  warm  countries  fruits  are  dried  by  direct  exposure 
to  the  sun,  but  better  results  may  be  secured  by  drying 
with  artificial  heat.  The  evaporation  of  fruit  by  means  of 
special  apparatus  is  an  important  industry  in  many  local- 
ities (297,  298). 


202  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

10.  Fruits  are  canned  by  cooking  them  in  sealed  vessels. 
Canned  fruit  may  spoil  from  insufficient  cooking  or  frou> 
insufficient  heating  after  sealing  (300). 

11.  Crystallized  fruits  are  prepared  by  slowly  replacing 
the  natural  juice  with  sugar  syrup.  They  keep  well  in  any 
climate  (301). 

12.  Jams  and  marmalades  are  made  by  boiling  the  fruit 
with  sugar  until  the  juice  is  sufficiently  concentrated  to  keep- 
(302).  Jellies  are  made  by  boiling  the  juices  with  sugar  (303).. 

13.  The  quality  of  cider  depends  much  upon  the  rich- 
ness and  ripeness  of  the  apples  used  (305)  Cider  apples 
should  be  stored  where  they  will  absorb  no  foreign  flavors 
and  should  be  clean  and  sound  (306). 

14.  Cider  is  made  by  reducing  the  apples  to  pulp  in  spe- 
cial machines  and  extracting  the  juice  by  heavy  pressure 
(307).     Cider  intended  for  drinking  should  be  filtered  (308). 

15.  Cider,  on  fermentation,  develops  a  small  percentage 
of  alcobol,  which  on  further  fermentation  becomes  vin- 
egar. Cider  should  have  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.04 
to  make  first-class  vinegar  (309). 

16.  Commercial  wines  are  the  expressed  and  fermented 
juice  of  the  grape,  more  or  less  pure  (311). 

17.  Grapes  continue  to  develop  sugar  until  fully  mature,, 
hence  those  free  from  foxiness  should  be  permitted  to  be- 
come fully  ripe,  for  wine  (312). 

18.  The  kind  of  wine  made  depends  much  upon  the 
amount  of  fermentation  permitted  in  the  mashed  grapes 
before  pressing  (313). 

19.  Wine  is  made  by  mashing  the  grapes  between  rollers, 
and  extracting  the  juice  by  pressure.  Water  and  sugar 
are  often  added  to  the  must  to  regulate  the  proportion  of 
acid  and  sugar  (314). 


Suggestions  for  Laboratory  Work.  203 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LABORATORY   WORK. 

1.  Show  the  students  samples  of  dried,  evaporated  and 
crystallized  fruits. 

2.  So  far  as  practicable,  have  the  students  visit  places 
where  the  manufacture  of  fruits  into  secondary  products 
is  being  carried  on. 

3.  Practice  such  methods,  or  make  such  experiments  in 
the  preservation  of  fruits,  as  the  resources  of  your  institu- 
tion permit. 


204:  Zessotis  in  Fruit  Growing, 


CHAPTER  VI 

BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FRUIT  PLANTATION 

315.  Importance  of  good  business  management.  Suc- 
cess in  commercial  fruit  growing  depends,  perhaps,  as  much 
upon  good  business  management  as  upon  the  production 
of  good  fruit,  though  this  fact  has  not  been  generally  real- 
ized. 

Important  as  are  the  details  of  routine  management,  the 
highest  responsibility  connected  with  the  fruit  plantation 
rests  on  the  person  who  determines  its  broader  policy.  The 
best  varieties  to  grow,  the  best  methods  of  disposing  of  the 
fruits,  the  best  ways  of  treating  the  soil,  the  best  imple- 
ments to  use,  the  best  means  of  catering  to  the  purchaser; 
these  and  similar  questions  call  for  scientific  knowledge 
and  business  ability  of  the  highest  order. 

The  subjects  that  may  be  properly  included  under  the 
routine  business  management  are,  in  the  order  of  their 
importance:  1st,  the  marketing  of  the  fruit,  2d,  the  man- 
agement of  labor  and  3rd,  the  procuring  of  supplies. 

316.  Book-keeping.  An  accurate  system  of  accounts  is 
quite  as  essential  to  success  in  commercial  fruit  growing  as 
in  other  commercial  occupations.  The  books  should  not 
only  show  the  cash  receipts  and  expenditures,  the  resources 
and  liabilities,  and  the  time  of  employes,  but  in  many  cases 
they  should  show  also  the  accounts  with  individual  varie- 
ties, orchards  and  fields.  It  is  only  by  these  means  that 
the  business  can  be  most  wisely  directed. 


Business  Management  of  the  Fruit  Plantation.    205 


Section  1 — The  Marketing  of  Fruit 

3 It.  The  commercial  outlets  for  fruit.  Fruit  is  com- 
monly sold  by  the  grower  through  one  of  three  chan- 
nels: (a)  To  the  consumer,  (b)  to  the  fruit  dealer,  and 
(c)  through  a  middleman  who  receives  the  fruit  from  the 
grower  and  sells  it  for  a  commission  (commission  mer- 
chant). If  the  party  purchasing  or  receiving  the  fruit  is 
located  sufficiently  near  the  fruit  plantation,  the  fruit  may 
be  delivered  to  him  by  wagon;  otherwise  it  will  have  to 
be  delivered  to  a  transportation  company  for  shipment. 

318.  Selling  to  consumers.  The  best  prices  may  gener- 
ally be  secured  by  selling  directly  to  the  consumer,  especially 
if  the  fruit  is  choice  and  the  purchaser  is  able  to  pay  a 
*' fancy  "  price.  The  amount  of  fruit  that  can  be  sold  by 
this  method  is,  however,  as  a  rule,  comparatively  small, 
and  the  time  required  to  make  the  sale  and  delivery  is 
relatively  large.  The  largest  outlets  for  fruits  by  this 
method  are  commonly  through  boarding-houses,  restaur- 
ants and  hotels. 

319.  Selling  to  dealers.  By  this  method  larger  quanti- 
ties of  fruit  may  commouly  be  sold  for  a  given  effort  than 
by  selling  to  the  consumer,  but  the  prices  are  usually 
lower.  Some  growers  attempt  to  sell  their  choicest  fruits 
to  consumers  and  those  of  medium  quality  to  dealers,  but 
the  two  methods  are  not  apt  to  work  well  together,  as 
dealers  usually  object  to  the  grower  selling  his  fruit  to 
consumers. 

In  sections  where  insufficient  fruit  is  grown  to  fully 
supply  the  local  demand,  a  large  shipping  trade  may  often 
be  developed  with  dealers  in  neighboring  towns.  A  list 
of  such  dealers  may  be  procured  through  transportation 


206    •  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

agents;  and  a  circular  letter  describing  the  kind,  quality 
and  prices  of  stock  for  sale,  with  a  promise  of  prompt  and 
regular  delivery,  and  solicitation  for  a  trial  order,  may  be 
mailed  to  each.  The  responsibility  of  unknown  parties 
may  be  learned  through  bankers  or  commercial  agencies. 
Purchasers  may  generally  be  found  who  will  deal  fairly  so 
long  as  the  grower  performs  his  part  conscientiously. 

320.  Selling:  to  commission  merchants.  By  this  method 
•the  largest  quantities  of  fruit  can  be  sold,  and  with  the 
least  trouble  to  the  grower,  but  the  prices  realized  are  often 
unsatisfactory.  The  grower  is,  in  the  nature  of  the  case, 
largely  at  the  mercy  of  the  commission  man,  and  often  has 
no  ready  means  of  knowing  to  what  extent  he  is  fairly 
dealt  with.  It  is  unquestionably  true,  however,  that  honor- 
■able  commission  merchants  are  to  be  found  in  nearly  every 
large  city,  and  it  is  often  the  grower's  highest  policy  to 
find  these  men  and  to  entrust  his  selling  business  to  them. 
Having  found  such  a  merchant,  the  grower  should  lean 
much  upon  his  judgment  and  should  obey  his  directions 
to  the  letter.  Unknown  middlemen  who  solicit  trade  by 
circulars  and  letters,  promising  prices  above  the  market, 
should  always  be  regarded  with  suspicion.  The  "price 
currents"  sent  out  by  large  commission  merchants  are 
often  helpful,  but  should  not  be  closely  relied  upon,  as 
they  are  not  always  carefully  revised  and  are  at  best  several 
hours  old  before  they  reach  the  grower.  The  telegraph 
and  telephone  are  better  means  for  securing  price  quota- 
tions from  out-of-town  markets.  Express  and  railroad 
agents  sometimes  find  purchasers  for  goods  shipj)ed  by  their 
lines,  but  unless  paid  a  commission,  they  can  hardly  be  ex- 
pected to  use  much  efiTort  to  secure  highest  prices. 

321.  Shipping:  associations.  In  districts  where  numer- 
ous persons  grow  and  ship  fruit,  an  association  for  ship- 


Business  Management  of  the  Fruit  Plantation,    207 

ping  and  selling  the  produce  is  usually  advantageous.  A 
manager  may  be  employed  to  devote  his  time  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  members.  He  can  ascertain  the  consuming 
capacity  of  the  towns  within  profitable  shipping  distance 
and  the  transportation  rates  to  each.  This  will  enable 
him  to  send  the  proper  quantities  to  each  town  and  thus 
secure  better  distribution  than  where  each  grower  ships 
his  own  products.  By  shipping  in  large  quantities,  ad- 
vantage may  often  be  taken  of  refrigerator  cars  and  car- 
load rates.  Small  lots  of  a  given  variety,  grown  by  differ- 
ent members  of  the  association,  can  be  grouped,  thus 
permitting  better  prices  to  be  secured  for  all.  The  larger 
fruits,  as  apples,  pears  and  oranges,  are  sometimes  packed 
by  the  association,  thus  insuring  uniform  packing.  The 
services  of  middlemen  may  sometimes  be  dispensed  with 
by  inducing  dealers  to  purchase  directly  from  the  associa- 
tion. 

322.  Fruits  sell  largely  by  appearance.  Too  much 
stress  can  hardly  be  placed  upon  the  importance  of  putting 
up  fruit  for  sale  in  an  artistic  manner  (15,  17). 

323.  Printed  matter  in  fruit  packagfes.  The  use  of 
printer's  ink  as  a  means  of  promoting  sales,  so  fully  real- 
ized in  the  mercantile  business,  seems  to  be  little  under- 
stood by  fruit  growers,  A  neat  card,  placed  in  the  fruit 
package  where  it  can  be  readily  displayed  by  the  dealer, 
stating  the  uses  for  which  that  particular  variety  is  spe- 
cially adapted,  with  recipes  for  its  proper  treatment,  would 
often  promote  sales,  and  would  tend  to  educate  consumers 
to  discriminate  between  the  qualities  of  fruits,  which  would 
lead  to  their  larger  consumption.  Other  methods  of 
using  printed  matter  will  occur  to  the  thoughtful  fruit 
grower. 


208  JLessons  in  Fruit  Groviing. 

Section  2. —  The  Employment  and  Management  of  Labor 

324.  The  object  to  be  attained  by  labor  on  tlie  fruit  plan- 
tation is  the  performance  of  the  various  necessary  opera- 
tions in  the  proper  manner,  at  the  proper  time,  and  at  the 
minimum  cost.  While  few  of  .the  operations  connected 
with  fruit  growing  require  special  skill,  there  is  a  best 
way,  and  a  best  time  to  perform  every  one.  Sufficient 
labor  must  be  employed  to  accomplish  these  ends,  and  the 
supervision  of  this  labor  must  be  such  as  to  insure  their 
accomplishment  at  a  minimum  cost.  The  foreman  of  labor 
on  the  fruit  plantation  has  therefore  a  most  responsible 
position. 

325.  Qualifications  of  the  foreman.  The  foreman  should 
not  only  know  the  best  time  and  the  best  method  for  per- 
forming every  necessary  operation  on  the  fruit  plantation, 
but  he  should  have  the  tact  to  induce  every  assistant  to 
perform  the  work  assigned  liim  according  to  the  highest 
standard,  and  at  a  reasouabh^  rapid  rate.  The  price  re- 
ceived for  strawberries  will  depend  considerably  upon  the 
stage  of  ripeness  at  which  they  are  picked,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  are  handled  and  placed  in  the  package. 
The  quality  of  the  peach  or  plum  crop  will  depend  much 
upon  the  care  exercised  in  thinning  the  fruit.  The  fore- 
man's supervision  must  be  continuous  and  must  extend  to 
the  smallest  details.  A  persistent  process  of  selection  must 
be  exercised  with  the  assistants,  retaining,  so  far  as  prac- 
ticable, only  the  fittest.  The  wages  paid  must,  of  course, 
be  sufficient  to  retain  the  best. 

326.  Organization  of  labor  On  large  plantations,  work 
will  often  necessarily  be  going  on  at  more  than  one  place 
at  the  same  time.     In  such  cases,  a  sub-foreman  will  be 


Business  Management  of  the  Fruit  Plantation.    2<J9 

needed  for  eacli  squad,  and  the  most  tactful  and  loyal 
worknuui  should  be  selected  for  such  positions.  The  tastes 
and  aptitudes  of  each  individual  workman  should  be  care- 
fully observed,  and  so  far  as  possible  each  should  be  de- 
tailed to  the  kind  of  work  that  best  suits  his  tasti'S  and 
abilities. 

327.  The  loyal  spirit  amon§:  workmen.  Tn  any  business 
where  much  labor  is  employed,  the  success  and  economy 
with  which  the  necessary  operations  are  accomplished  will 
depend  considerably  upon  the  mental  attitude  of  the  work- 
men toward  their  employer.  A  spirit  of  loyalty  and  sym- 
pathy among  workmen  should  be  promoted  by  all  avail- 
able means.  Strictly  fair  dealing,  reasonable  demands  and 
prompt  recognition  of  merit  tend  to  this  end.  Where 
many  young  persons  are  employed,  an  occasional  picnic 
or  evening  entertainment  tendered  them  will  do  much  to 
foster  the  loyal  spirit.  In  one  case,  where  a  large  small- 
fruit  business  was  carried  on,  and  girls  and  boys  were 
chiefly  employed  for  picking,  the  pickers  reported  at  the 
office  at  a  stated  time,  formed  into  line  and  marched  to  the 
field  to  the  music  of  a  drum  and  fife.  This  is  mentioned 
as  one  means  of  promoting  the  loyal  spirit.  There  are 
many  others. 

Section  3. —  The  PyocHrinff  of  Supplies 

328.  The  supplies  needed  on  the  fruit  plantation  are 

mostly  included   under   (a)   implements   and   machinery; 

(b)  fertilizers;   (c)  spraying  materials;  (d)  packages,   and 

(e)  trees,  plants  and  seeds.     The  cost  of  thes-e  supplies  will 

depend  considerably  upon  the  location  and  transportation 

facilities,  and  upon  the  methods  employed  by  the  purchaser. 
U 


210  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing. 

329.  Aim  to  secure  wholesale  rates  both  in  the  purchase 
and  transportation  of  supplies.  This  often  necessitates 
purchasing  in  large  quantities.  When  the  amount  of  a 
given  commodity  desired  is  insufficient  to  secure  wholesale 
prices,  aim  to  make  up  a  club  order  with  other  fruit  grow- 
ers, or,  if  possible,  order  enough  of  other  needed  supplies 
of  the  same  party  to  secure  special  prices  on  the  whole.  So 
far  as  practicable,  have  supplies  shipped  in  carload  lots.' 

330.  Invite  competition.  More  or  less  may  generally  be 
gained  by  submitting  a  list  of  needed  supplies  to  differeiit 
manufacturers  or  dealers,  for  competitive  bids.  It  may  not 
always  be  wise  to  accept  the  lowest  bid  in  such  cases,  but 
the  method  will  insure  the  opportunity  to  purchase  the 
articles  at  a  reasonable  price. 

331.  Consider  all  methods  by  which  the  needed  supplies 
may  be  obtained.  Sometimes  barrels  may  be  purchased 
cheapest  by  buying  the  heads,  hoops  and  staves  of  different 
parties  and  having  the  barrels  set  up  on  the  farm.  Some- 
times the  local  planing  mill  can  lay  down  the  materials 
for  crates  or  boxes  cheaper  than  the  regular  package  manu- 
facturer. Fertilizers  may  sometimes  be  obtained  cheaper 
in  the  by-products  of  local  manufacturers  than  in  the  regu- 
lar market,  or  they  may  be  obtained  still  cheaper  by  keep- 
ing stock  on  the  farm.  The  seed  for  cover  crops,  or 
mulching  materials  may  perhaps,  be  raised  on  the  farm 
cheaper  than  it  can  be  purchased. 

SUMMARY   OF   THE   PRECEDING   CHAPTER. 

1.  Success  in  commercial  fruit  growing  may  depend  as 
much  upon  good  business  management  as  upon  the  pro- 
duction of  good  fruit  (315).  A  thorough  system  of  ac- 
counts should  be  kept  (316). 


8u(jgestlons  for  Lciboratury  ^york.  211 

2.  Fruits  are  commonly  sold  to  consumers,  dealers  or 
commission  merchants.  The  first  pa}^  best  prices,  but  com- 
monly require  only  small  quantities;  the  last  may  use  large 
quantities,  but  the  prices  received  are  often  unsatisfactory 
(317-320). 

3.  Where  several  persons  in  the  same  community  are 
engaged  in  fruit  growing,  a  shipping  association  is  gener- 
ally advantageous  (321). 

4.  Too  much  care  can  hardly  be  given  to  the  appearance 
of  fruit  offered  for  sale,  so  long  as  the  article  is  honestly 
packed  (322,  17).  Printed  matter  may  often  be  wisely 
used  in  the  fruit  package  (323). 

5.  The  foreman  of  labor  has  a  most  responsible  position 
on  the  fruit  plantation  (324,  325). 

6.  The  tastes  and  aptitudes  of  each  individual  workman 
should  be  considered  (326).  All  reasonable  means  should 
be  used  to  promote  a  loyal  spirit  among  workmen  (327). 

7.  Efforts  should  be  made  to  secure  wholesale  rates  in 
the  purchase  and  transportation  of  supplies  (329).  Com- 
petition should  be  invited  from  dealers  and  manufacturers 
(330). 

8.  All  methods  for  procuring  supplies  should  be  consid- 
ered (331). 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  LABORATORY   Vp-QRK. 

1.  Drill  students  in  a  system  of  book-keeping  suitable 
to  a  large  fruit-growing  business.  This  should  include  a 
double-entry  system,  with  a  concise  method  of  keeping  ac- 
counts with  different  crops. 

2.  So  far  as  practicable,  give  students  practice  not  only 
in  the  different  operations  performed  on  the  fruit  planta- 
tion, but  in  the  management  of  squads  of  labor,  the  mar- 
keting of  fruit  and  the  purchase  of  supplies. 


212  Lessons  in  Fruit  Growing, 

3.  Require  each  student  to  submit  a  short  essay  on  the 
best  general  system  of  management  to  be  pursued  for  a 
given  fruit  plantation. 


To  those  who  desire  to  study  further  the  subject  of  com- 
mercial fruit  growing,  the  following  works  will  be  helpful: 
Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,  Bailey  ';  The  Pruning  Book, 
Bailey;'  American  Fruit  Culturist,  Thomas^;  Plums  and 
Plum  Culture,  Waugh';  The  Nut  Culturist,  Fuller';  The 
Bush  Fruits,  Card';  Cranberry  Culture,  Eastman^  and 
White';  American  Grape  Growing  and  Wine  Making, 
Husmann  •;  Harvesting,  Storing  and  Marketing  of  Fruits, 
Waugh';  The  Cider  Makers'  Hand  Book,  Trowbridge'; 
The  Spraying  of  Plants,  Lodeman';  Insects  Injurious  to 
Fruits,  Saunders^;  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture, 
edited  by  Bailey';  Reports  and  Bulletins  of  government 
experiment  Stations;  Reports,  Yearbooks  and  Bulletins 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  Trans- 
actions of  State  horticultural  societies. 

1  Published  by  the  Macmillan  Company,  New  York. 

*  Published  by  the  Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York, 
s  Published  by  Wm.  Wood  &  Company,  New  York. 

*  Published  by  the  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,  Philadelphia. 


INDEX. 


Tlie  numbers  refer  to  pages.    Headings  of  sections  and  subsections  are  in  bold- 
face type. 


Aegeria  excitiosa,  05. 

Accounts,  keeping  with  pickers,  149. 

Acrobasis  vnccini,  180. 

Aim  to  secure  wholesale  rates,  310. 

Almond,  the,  119. 

Alternate  bearing,  39. 

Amelanchier  Canadensis,  180. 

American  chestnut,  114. 

American  gooseberry,  160. 

American  red  raspberry,  150. 

Anarsia  lineatella,  170. 

Anisoptere.v,  50. 

Anihonomus  quadrigibbus,  48. 

Anthracnose  of  bramble  fruits,  156. 

Anthracnose  of  grape,  141,  143. 

Aphidoe  on  apple  trees,  49. 

Apple  blight,  58. 

Apple  canker,  60. 

Apple  curculio,  48. 

Apple,  dwarf  stocks  for,  44. 

Apple-leaf  crumpler,  51. 

Apple  maggot,  48. 

Apple  scab,  58. 

Apple,  the,  40,  .39. 

Apple-tree  borers,  51,  52.  83. 

Apples,  in  bushel  boxes,  62:  influence  of 
conditions  on,  63;  picking  and  pack- 
ing, 61;  press  for  packing,  63;  suitable 
for  cider,  196. 

Apricot,  the,  97. 

Arm  of  grape,  defined,  132. 

Ashes  for  orchard  trees,  33. 

Aspidiotus  injuring  cranberries,  180. 

Anpidiotus  perniciotyi.  54. 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  quoted,  94. 
Balaninus,  123. 

Bark  lice,  preventive  measures  for,  54. 
Bartlett  pear  self-sterile,  13. 
Bigarreau  cherry,  87. 


Bird  cherry,  87,  89. 

Bird's-eye  rot  of  apple,  .59. 

Bitter  rot  of  ajiple,  59. 

Blackberry,  150,  157;  duration  of  plan- 
tation of,  153;  fruiting  habit  of,  1.52; 
insects  and  diseases  of,  155;  picking 
and  packing,  154;  planting,  151 ;  prop- 
agation of,  151;  pruning,  153:  soil 
and  culture,  152;  trellising,  154;  win- 
ter protection  of,  154. 

Blackcap  raspberry,  150. 

Black  currant,  160,  163. 

Black-headed  cranberry  worm,  179. 

Black  knot  of  stone  fruits,  84. 

Black  rot  of  grape,  141. 

Black  walnut,  117. 

Bladder  plums,  85. 

Blight  of  apple  and  pear,  58. 

Blight,  leaf,  of  pear,  73;  of  quince,  75. 

Blueberry,  181,  182 

Bone  meal  for  orchard  trees,  33. 

Book-keeping,  204. 

Books  recoumieuded  for  further  study, 
212. 

Borers  in  fruit  trees,  51,  52,  83. 

Borers  in  pecan  trees,  113. 

Bramble  fruits,  the,  150. 

Brown  rot  of  grape,  142. 

Bud,  the  unit  of  growth,  31. 

Budding  the  apple,  4;i,  44;  the  cherry, 
89;  the  orange,  103. 

Buffalo  berry,  181,  182. 

Buffalo  currant.  160. 

Business  niana;|!:einent  of  the  fruit 
plantation,  204. 

Butters,  fruit,  196. 

Butternut,  117. 

Cacoecia,  50. 

Cane  of  grape,  defined,  132. 


214 


Index. 


Canker  of  apple,  60. 

Canker  worms,  50. 

Canning  fruits,  189,  104. 

Card  catalogue  of  varieties,  11. 

Care  of  cider  apples,  196;  of  the  cran- 
berry marsh  after  planting,  178;  of 
young  orchard  trees,  25. 

Carpocapsa  pomonella,  45. 

Carya  alba,  114;  olivoeformis,  110. 

Castanea,  species  of,  114. 

Cecidomyia  vaccinii,  180. 

Cecropia  moths  on  apple  trees,  50,  51. 

Cercospora  circumsci.isa,  121. 

Cherry,  the,  87. 

Cherry,  cultivated  species  of,  87;  ma- 
haleb,  89. 

Chestnut,  the,  1 14. 
Chickasaw  plum,  79. 
Chinkapin,  114. 

Choice  of  location  for  fruit  growing,  3. 
Clirysobothris  femorata,  52. 
Cider,  196;  manufacture  of,   197. 
Cider  vinegar,  198. 
Citrous  fruits,  the.  101. 
Citrus,  species,  101;  trifoliata,  103. 
Classification  of  fruits,  17. 
Climax  fruit  basket,  76. 
Clisiocampa  Americana,  48. 
Coccotorus  scutellaris,  83. 
Codling  moth,  45. 
Cceoma  luminatum,  156. 
Cold-storage  —  only  sound  fruit  will  re- 
pay, 188. 
Cold-storage  houses,  16. 
Commercial  fruit  growing  defined,  1; 
outlook  for,  2;  what  success  in  de- 
pends on,  2. 
Commercial  outlets  for  fruit,  205. 
Commercial  production  of  nuts,  110. 
Commercial  varieties,  7. 
Competition  should  be  invited,  210. 
Conditions  affecting  decay  m  fruits,  185 
Conditions  affecting  fruitf ulness,  12. 
Conotrachelus  crutaegi,  75;  nenuphar, 

81. 
Consider  all  methods  for  procuring  sup- 
plies, 210. 
Conveniences  for  picking  tree  fruits,  34. 


Co-operative  storage  houses,  188, 
Corylus,  121. 
Cover  crops,  27,  33. 
Crab  apple,  39,  64. 
Cranberry,  the,  175. 

Crandall  currant,  160,  163. 

Crate  for  small  fruits,  149. 

Cropping  orchards,  28. 

Crown  grafting  the  grape,  130. 

Crystallization  of  fruits,  189,  195. 

Cultivation  for  stone  fruits,  76. 

Cultural  range  of  almond,  119;  apple, 
40;  apricot,  97;  chestnut,  114;  cran- 
berry, 175;  lemon,  106;  orange,  102; 
peach,  90;  pear,  67;  pecan.  111; 
qmnce,  73;  walnut,  117. 

Culture  methods  for  quince,  75. 

Culture  of  blackberry,  152;  bramble 
fruits,  152;  cranberry,  176;  currant 
and  gooseberry,  160;  dewberry,  152; 
lemon,  106:  raspberry,  152;  straw- 
berry, 167. 

Curculio,  apple,  48;  plum,  81;  quince, 
75. 

Curculio  catcher,  82. 

Curing  the  lemon,  106;  the  walnut,  118. 

Currant  borer,  162. 

Currant,  pruning,  160;  soil  for,  160; 
species  of,  160. 

Crrrant  worm,  imported,  161. 

Currants,  the,  160. 

Cydonia  vulgaris,  39. 

Da  tana  ministra.  51. 

Decay  in  fruits,  conditions  affecting, 
185. 

Definition  and  aim  of  storage,  185. 

Designation  of  varieties,  10. 

Dewberry,  the,  157;  northern,  150; 
fruiting  habit  of,  152;  insects  and  dis. 
eases  of,  155;  picking  and  packing, 
154;  planting,  151;  propagation  of, 
151;  pruning,  153;  soil  and  culture, 
152:  trelhsing,  154;  winter  protection 
of,  154. 

Diastrophus  nebulosus,  155. 

Diseases  and  parasites,  11. 

Diseases  affecting  the  apricot,  98;  black- 
berry, 155;  cherry,  90;  dewberry,  155; 


Index. 


215 


gooseberry,  104:  grape,  141;  peach 
95;  pear,  71;  raspberry,  155;  straw- 
berry, 170. 

Distance  for  planting  the  almond,  120; 
apple,  44;  blackberry,  151;  chestnut, 
IIG;  currant,  160;  dewberry,  151; 
gooseberry,  160;  hazel,  123;  lemon. 
106;  orange,  104;  peach,  93;  pear,  70; 
pecan,  112;  plum,  87;  quince,  75;  rasp- 
berry, 151;  strawberry,  16";  walnut, 
118. 

Domestic  varieties,  7. 

Doucin  stocks  for  apple,  44. 

Downy  mildew  of  grape,  141,  142. 

Dried  fruits,  packing,  193. 

Drying  fruits,  189,  190. 

Drooping  methods  of  grape  training, 
133.  \m. 

Drupe  fruits,  the,  75. 

Duke  cherry,  87. 

Duration  of  plantation  of  bramble 
fruits,  153;  of  strawberry,  169. 

Dwarf  apples,  44;  cherry,  88,  180,  181; 
juneberry,  180,  182;  pears,  69;  Rocky 
Mountain  cherry,  181. 

Dwarf  stocks  for  the  apple,  44. 

Education  required  for  fruit-growing,  1 . 
Elecignus  longipes,  181. 
Emphytus  maculatus,  171. 
Employment    and    management   of 

labor,  the,  208. 
English  cherry,  87. 
English  gooseberry,  160. 
Enghsh  walnut,  117. 
Entomosporium  maculatum,  73. 
Erythroneura  vitis,  140. 
European  chestnut,  114. 
European  grape,  126. 
European  plum,  77. 
European  red  raspberry,  150. 
Eiithrips  tritici,  171. 
Evaporating  fruit,  189,  190. 
Exoascus  deformans,  96;  pruni,  85. 

Fall  web-worm,  113. 

Ferment,  vinegar,  198. 

Fertilizers,  how  to  know  if  needed,  32. 

Fertilizing  of  orchards,  32. 


Filtration  of  cider,  198. 

Fire  blight,  58,  72. 

Fire  worm  of  cranberry,   179. 

Flat-headed  apple-tree  borer,  52,  83. 

Flooding  the  cranberry  marsh,  178. 

Flower-buds  of  apple,  41. 

Foreman,  qualifications  of,  208. 

Four-lined  leaf-bug,  163. 

Fragaria  Chiloensis,  165. 

Frost,  freedom  from,  what  depends 
on,  4. 

Frost  grape,  126. 

Frost,  protection  of  strawberries  from, 
169. 

Fruit,  bearing  alternate  years,  39;  com- 
mercial outlets  for,  205;  damage  to, 
in  picking,  14;  defined,  1;  preserva- 
of,  185;  selling  to  consumers,  205;  to 
dealers,  205;  to  commission  mer- 
chants, 206;  shipping  associations 
for,  207;  storage  of,  16;  thinning,  M; 
when  and  how  should  it  be  picked  ? 
14. 

Fruit  basket,  climax,  76. 

Fruit  butters.  196. 

Fruit  establishments,  proximity  to,  de- 
sirable, 6. 

Fruit  evaporation,  190. 

Fruit  growing,  choice  of  location  for, 
3;  commercial,  defined,  1;  success  in 
dependent  on  selection  of  varieties,  2, 
7;  education  required  for,  1;  locations 
for,  outside  of  normal  belt,  5;  present 
condition  of,  1. 

Fruit  jams,  195. 

Fruit  jellies,  196. 

Fruit  ladders,  35. 

Fruit  marmalades,  195. 

Fruit  packages,  13;  grower's  name 
should  be  put  on,  14;  printed  matter 
in,  207;  requisites  to  good,  13. 

Friiit  rot  of  stone  fruits,  83. 

Fruit  spurs  of  apple,  41. 

Fruit  worm  of  cranberry,  180. 

Fruitfulness,   conditions  affecting,  12. 

Fruiting  habit  of  almond,  121);  apple, 
40;  apricot,  97;  blackberry,  152; 
bramble  fruits,  152;  cherry,  88;  chest- 


21G 


Index. 


nut,  115:  cranberry,  175;  currants, 
160;  dewberry.  152;  grape,  131;  hazel, 
122;  orange,  102;  peach,  91;  pear.  68; 
pecan.  111;  plum,  80;  quince,  74;  rasp- 
•,  152;  strawberry,  166;  walnut, 


pt^vjau.  111.  jjiuiii,  ou;  quirjce,  i 
berry,  152;  strawberry,  166; 


Fruits,  canning,  189,  194;  classif  c  ition 
of,  17;  conditions  affecting  decay  in, 
185;  crystallization  of,  189,  195;  dry- 
ing er  evaporating,  189;  grading  and 
packing,  15,  36;  how  to  promote  keep- 
ing of,  186;  kinds  of  to  grow,  3;  ma- 
turity of,  185:  may  become  moist  in 
storage,  186;  may  become  moist  when 
ren^oved  from  storage,  187;  packing 
di-ied,  193;  pome,  39;  preservation  of, 
185,  188;  sell  by  appearance,  207; 
storage  of,  185;  sulfuring,  for  drying, 
191. 

Fumigating  trees  for  San  Jose  Scale,  55. 

Fungous  diseases  of  grape,  141. 

Fungous  diseases  of  quince,  75. 

Fusicladium,  of  apple  and  pear,  58. 

Gaylussacia,  181. 
General  considerations,  1. 
Glcecsporium  fructigenum,  59;  neca- 

tor,  156. 
Gooseberries,  the,  164. 
Gooseberry  mildew,  165. 
Gooseberry,  pruning,  160;  soil  for,  100; 

species  of,  160. 
Goumi,  181,  182. 

Grading  and  packing  fruits,  15,  .36. 
Grading  of  nursery  trees,  21. 
Grafting  the  apple,  43,  4-1;  cherry,  89; 

grape,  129;  pear,  69;  plum,  86. 
Grape,  the,  126. 

Grapes  for  wine,  maturity  of,  200. 
Grape-vine  leaf-hopper.  140. 
Grapholitha  caryana,  113. 
Grass,  seeding  orchard  to,  may  make 

trees  bear,  28. 
Grasshoppers  injuring  cranbeiTies,  180. 
Gray  rot  of  grape,  142. 
Groselles,  the,  159. 
Ground  for  cranberry,  selecting,  17u. 
Growth  habit  of  strawberry,  166. 


Growth  of  orchard  trees,  when  com- 
pleted, 26. 

Harmful  parasites  and  diseases,  11. 
Harnesses  for  orchard  work,  29. 
Harvesting  the  grape,  144;  hazel,  123; 
lemon,  106;  orange,  105;  pecan,  113; 
strawberry,  170;  walnut.  118. 
Hazel,  the.  121. 
Health     and    cleanness    of     nursery 

trees,  21. 
Heart  cherry.  87. 
Hickory -shuck  worm,  113. 
Hickory  t«ig-girder.  113. 
Hicoria  ovata,  114;  pecan,  110. 
High  or  low  heading  of  trees,  29. 
High  renewal  method  of  grape  train- 
ing, Ui. 
Hill  system  of  strawberry  culture,  169. 
Houses,  cold-storage,  16;  packing,  15. 
How  shall  we  know  if  fertilizers  are 

needed,  32. 
How  to  promote  keeping  of  fruits,  180. 
Huckleberry,  181,  182. 
Hybrid  plums,  79. 
Hyphantria  cunea,  113. 

Importance  of  good  business  manage- 
ment, 204. 

Imported  currant  borer,  162. 

Imported  currant  worm,  161. 

Improving  wild  cranberry  marshes,  176. 

Insects  affecting  the  apple,  45;  apricot, 
98;  blackberry,  155;  cherry,  9U;  dew- 
berry, 155;  gooseberries,  164;  grape, 
139:  hazel,  123;  peach,  95,  pear,  71; 
quince,  75;  raspberry,  155;  straw- 
berrj^  170. 

Introduced  walnuts,  1 19. 

Invite  competition,  210. 

Jams  and  marmalades,  195. 
Japanese  chestnut,  114.  ' 

Japanese  plum,  77. 
"  Jarring  process  "  for  plum  curculio, 

82. 
Jellies,  fruit,  196. 
Juylans,  species,  117,  119. 


Index. 


217 


Kid-glove  oranges,  101,  102. 
Kinds  of  fruit  to  grow,  3. 
Kind  of  tillage  for  orchards,  28. 
Kniffen  system  of  grape  training,  136. 

Labor,  available  supply  of  necessary,  6. 
Labor,  object  attained  by,  208. 
Laboi-,  organization  of,  209. 
Laboratory  work,  suggestions  for,  19, 

38,  Ce,  UX),  109,  125,  146,  159,  17J,  184, 

203,  211. 
Lachnostenin  fuxca.  171. 
Ladders  for  picking  fruit,  33. 
Layering  the  grape,  127. 
Laying  out  orchards,  22. 
Leaf  blight  of  pear,  73;  of  strawberry, 

171. 
Leaf  curl  of  peach,  96. 
Leaf  rollers,  5(). 

Leaf  spot  or  rust  of  currant,  163. 
Lemon,  the,  106,101. 
Length  of  season,  as  related  to  fruit 

growing,  4. 
Lime,  the,  107,  101. 
"Little  peach,"  96. 
Locality  where  planting  stock  should 

be  purchased,  8. 
Location  for  fruit  growing,  choice  of,  3; 

outside  of  normal  belt,  5. 
Locusts  injuring  cranberries,  180. 
Loestadia  Bidicellii,  141. 
Loyal  spirit  among  workmen,  209. 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  140. 

Mahaleb  cherry,  89. 

Mariauna  plum,  85. 

Market  conditions,  4. 

Market,  defined,  4;  may  be  developed,  5. 

Markets,  most  profitable  not  always 
largest  places,  6. 

Marketing  the  cherry,  89;  hazel,  123; 
pecan,  113;  walnut,  118. 

Marmalades,  fruit,  195. 

Mandarin,  the,  101.  102- 

Manufacture  of  cider,  197;  wine,  200. 

Manure,  available  supply  of  neces- 
sary, 6. 

Maturity  of  fruits,  185. 

Maturity  of  grapes  for  wine.  200. 

Matted-row  system  of  strawberry  cul- 
ture, 103. 


May  beetle,  171. 
Mazzard  cherry.  87 
Methods  of  preserving  fruit,  189. 
Methods  of  training  the  grape,  13.3. 
Micrococcus  nmylovoi-us,  58. 
Mildew  of  gooseberry,  165;  of  straw- 
berry, 172. 
Miner  group  of  plums,  79. 
Mirabelle  plum,  93. 
Misi'ellaneous  bush  fruits,  180. 
Missouri  currant,  160. 
Monilia  fructigena,  83. 
Morello  cherry,  87. 
Mycoderma  aceti,  198. 
Myrobolan  plum.  85. 
Mytilasjjts pomoruin,  53. 

Nectarine,  the,  90. 

Nematxis  veiitricosus,  101. 

Nigra  group  of  plums,  78. 

Northern  dewberry,  1.50. 

Northern  fox  grape,  126. 

Nursery  trees,  health    and    cleanness 

of,  21. 
Nuts,  the,  109. 
Nut  trees  allied  to  pecan,  113, 

Oberia  bimaculata,  1.55. 

Object  attained  by  labor,  208. 

(Ecanthus  nii^eus,  155. 

Oedemasia  concinna,  51. 

Oncideres  cingulatus,  113. 

Orange,  the,  102. 

Orange,  sweet,  101. 

Orange  rust  of  raspberry  and  black- 
berry, 156. 

Orchards,  cropping,  28. 

Orchard  culture,  general  statements, 
20. 

Orchard  culture  of  hazel,  122;  of  or- 
ange, 104;  of  wahiut,  118. 

Orchard,  defined,  20. 

Orchard  fruits,  grading  and  pack- 
ing, .36. 

Orchard  planting  of  the  peach,  93. 

Orchard  sites,  20. 

Orchards,  fertilizing  of,  32;  laying  out, 
22;  sod  in,  28;  soil  preparation  of, 
21;  soil  treatment  for,  26. 

Orchard  treatment  of  chestnut,  116. 


218 


Index. 


Orchard  trees;  bone  meal  for,  33;  care 
of  young,  25;  completing  season's 
growth,  26;  planting  of,  24;  potash 
for,  33;  principles  of  pruning,  30; 
wood  ashes  for,  33. 

Orchard  work,  harness  for,  29. 

Organization  of  labor,  209. 

Outlook  for  commercial  fruit  grow- 
ing, 2. 

Oyster-shell  bark  louse,  53. 

Package  manufactories,  proximity  to 
desirable,  6. 

Packages,  fruit,  13. 

Packing  apples,  61 ;  bramble  fruits,  154; 
dried  fruits,  193;  fruits,  15;  grape, 
144;  orange,  105;  peach,  94;  pears,  71; 
small  fruits,  148;  stone  fruits,  76. 

Packing  houses,  15;  location  for,  16. 

Paradise  stocks  for  apple,  44. 

Parasites  and  diseases,  11. 

Parasites  of  apple,  45;  of  chestnuts, 
116;  of  orange,  105. 

Parasitic  enemies  of  almond,  121;  of 
dwarf  cherry,  181;  of  pecan,  113;  of 
plum,  81. 

Parties  from  whom  to  purchase  plant- 
ing stock,  8. 

Peach,  the,  90. 

Peach,  growing  seedlings  of,  93;  on 
plum  stocks,  93. 

Peach-tree  borer,  95. 

Pear,  the,  67, 39. 

Pear,  Bartlett,  self -sterility  of,  13. 

Pear  bhght,  58. 
^    Pear,  dwarf,  69;  grafting  the,  69. 

Pear-tree  psylla,  71. 

Pear-tree  slug,  72. 

Pear  scab,  58. 

Petaii,  the,  110. 

Peen-to  peach,  90. 

Peionospera  viiicola,  141. 

Persian  walnut,  117. 

Phoxopteris  comptana,  170. 

Phylloxera  of  grape,  139. 

Physis  indigenella,  51. 

Pie  cherry,  87. 

Picking  apples,  61 ;  the  bramble  fruits, 


154;  the  cherry,  ?9;  the  cranberry, 
179;  the  peach,   94;    plums,  80;  the 
small  fruits,  148;  the  stone  fruits,  76. 
Picking  conveniences,  .34. 
Planting  the  almond,  120;  blackberry, 
151;  bramble  fruits,  151;  cranberry, 
177 ;  dewberry,  151 ;  grape,  130;  orange 
in  orchard,   104;   orchard  trees,   24; 
pecan,    112;    raspberry,   151;    straw- 
berry, 167;  procuring  stock  for,  8. 
Plant  lice  on  apple  trees,  49. 
Plom-ightia  morbosa,  84. 
Plnm,  the.  77. 
Plum,  black  knot  of,  84. 
Plum  curculio,  81. 
Plum  gouger,  83. 
Plum,  grafting  the,  86. 
Plum,  Marianna,  85. 
Plum  pockets,  85. 
Plum,  species  cultivated  in  U.  S.  and 

Canada,  77, 
Plum,  stocks  for,  85. 
Plum  stocks,  peaches  on,  93. 
Plum,  Wild-Goose,  78. 
Plums,  hybrid,  79;  Nigra  group  of,  78; 

Miner  group  of,  79;  rotting  of,  83. 
Podosphcera  oxycmithce.  181. 
PcBcilocapsus  lineatus,  163. 
Pollination,  planting  strawberries  for,  ' 

167. 
Pome  fruits,  the,  39. 
Pomelo,  the,  107, 101. 
Pomology  defined,  1. 
Potash  for  orchard  trees,  33, 
Powdery  mildew  of  grape,  141,  142. 
Preparing  the  almond  for  market,  120; 
chestnuts  for  market,  116;  cranberry 
marshes  for  planting,  177. 
Present  condition  of  fruit  growing,!; 

of  nut  culture,  109. 
Preservation  of  fruit,  185. 
Preserving  fruits  by  canning,  194;  by 

crystallization,  195;  by  drying,  190. 
Pi'eserving  fruit,  methods  of,  189. 
Press  for  packing  apples,  63. 
Principles  of  pruning  orchard  trees,  30. 
Printed  matter  in  fruit  packages,  207, 
Procuring  of  supplies,  the,  209. 


Index. 


219 


Propafration  of  almond,  120;  apple,  43; 
apricot,  98;  blackberry,  151;  cherry, 
8'.t;  chestnut,  115;  currants,  100;  dew- 
berry, 151:  gooseberry,  164;  grape, 
127;  hazel,  122;  orange,  103;  peach, 
91;  pear,  68;  pecan,  111;  plum,  85; 
quince,  74;  raspberry,  151 ;  walnut,  118. 

Prospects  of  nut  culture,  109. 

Protecting  orange  trees  from  cold,  105. 

Protection  of  strawberries  from  frost, 
169. 

Protectors  for  trees,  25. 

Pruning  the  almond,  120;  apple,  40; 
bramble  fruits,  153;  cherry,  89;  cur- 
rants, 160;  gooseberries,  161;  grape, 
131;  pear,  68;  peach.  93;  pecan,  113; 
plum,  80;  walnut,  118. 

Pruning  orchard  trees,  principles  of,  30. 

Pruning,  summer,  31. 

Frunus  Americana,  78,  79,  80;  amyg- 
dalis,  119;  angustifolia,  79,  85;  Ar- 
meniaca,  97;  avium,  87;  Besseyii,  88, 
180,  181;  cerasm,  87,  89;  Chicasa,  79; 
domestica,  77;  hortulana,  78;  maha- 
leb,  89;  myrobolana,  85;  persica,  90; 
triflora,  77. 

Psylla  pyri,  71. 

Pumps  for  spraying,  12. 

Purple-cane  raspberry,  150. 

Pyrus,  species  of,  39. 

Qualifications  of  foreman,  208. 

Quince,  the.  73,  39. 

Quince  curculio,  75. 

Quince,  French,  as  stock  for  the  pear, 
69. 

Quincunx  method  of  laying  out  or- 
chards, 22. 

Rapid  generation  of  vinegar,  199. 

Raspberry,  the,  1.57;  American  red,  150; 
blackcap,  150,  duration  of  planta- 
tion, 15:J;  European  red,  150;  fruiting 
habit  of,  152;  insects  and  diseases  of, 
155;  picking  and  packing,  154;  plant- 
ing, 151 ;  propagation  of,  151 ;  pruning, 
153;  purple-cane,  150;  soil  and  cul- 
ture of,  152;  trellising,  154 ;  winter  pro- 
tection of,  154. 


Raspberry  cane-borer,  153, 155. 

Raspberry  slug  or  saw-fly,  155. 

Red  cherry,  87. 

Red  currant,  160. 

Red-humped  apple-tree  caterpillar,  51. 

Red  rust  of  raspberry  and  blackberry, 
156. 

Red  spider  on  almond,  121. 

Ribes,  species  of,  160;  aureum,  163;  ni- 
grum, 163. 

Rhopodota  vacciniana,  179 

Ripe  rot  of  apple,  59. 

Roberts,  Prof.,  quoted.  32. 

Rocky  Moimtain  cherry,  181. 

Roestelia  aurantica,  75. 

Root  cuttings,  propagation  of  the  plum 
from,  86. 

Root-grafting  the  apple,  44;  the  grajse, 
129. 

Rose  beetle,  140. 

Rosette  of  the  peach,  96. 

Round-headed  apple-tree  borer,  51. 

Rubus,  species  of,  150;  villosus,  157. 

Bust  of  strawberry,  171. 

Samia  on  apple  trees,  50. 

Sand  cherry,  88. 

San  Jose  Scale,  54. 

Saperda  Candida,  51. 

Scab  fungus  of  apple  and  pear,  58. 

Schizoneura  lanigera,  56. 

Season,  length  of,  as  related  to  fruit 

growing,  4. 
Scale  insect  injuring  cranberries,  180. 
Seeding  ground  to  grass  may  make 

trees  bear,  28. 
Seedlings  of  apple,  43;  of  peach,  92;  of 

pear,  69;  of  pecan,  112;  of  plum,  86. 
Selandria  cerasi,  72;  rubi,  155. 
Selecting  ground  for  cranberry,  176. 
Selection  of  varieties  important,  7. 
Self-sterility  of  varieties,  13. 
Selling  fruit  to  commission  merchants, 

206;  to  consumers,  205;  to  dealers,  205. 
Septoria  Ribis,  163. 
Sesia  tipuliformis,  162. 
Shagbark  hickory,  113. 
Shellbark  hickory,  113. 


220 


Index. 


Shelter  from  prevailing  winds,  4. 

Shepherdia  argentia,  181. 

Shipping  associations  for  fruit,  207. 

Shipping  quality,  5. 

Shoot  of  grape  defined,  132. 

Shot-hole  fungus  on  almond,  121. 

Single-post  method  of  grape  training, 
133. 

Sites  for  orchards,  20. 

Small  fruits,  the,  148. 

Sod  in  orchards,  28. 

Soil  for  ahnond,  120;  apple,  43;  black- 
berry, 152;  bramble  fruits,  1.52;  cherry, 
88;  chestnuts,  115;  currant  and  goose- 
berry, 100;  dewberry,  152;  grape,  126; 
hazel,  122;  orange,  104;  peach,  93; 
pear,  67;  pecan.  111;  plum,  87;  quince, 
75;  raspberry,  152;  stoue  fiTiits,  70; 
strawberry,  160. 

Soil,  influence  of,  on  character  of  ap- 
ples, 64. 

Soil  preparation  for  grape,  130;  for 
orchards,  21. 

Soil  treatment  for  orchards,  26;  for 
pears,  68. 

Sour  cherry,  87. 

Southern  fox  grape,  126. 

Sphaceloma  ampelinum,  141. 

Sphoerella  Fragarioe,  171. 

Sphoeria  morbosa,  84. 

Sphoeropsis  malonim,  60. 

SphcBrotheca  castagnei,  172;  ilois 
uvoE,  165. 

Spraying,  apparatus  needed  for,  12. 

Spraying  for  codling  moth,  47. 

Spraying  for  fruit  rot,  84. 

Spraying  pumps,  12. 

Spur  of  grape,  defined,  132. 

Standard  fruit  tree,  defined,  68. 

Stock  for  planting,  parties  from  whom 
to  purchase,  8;  procuring,  8;  time  to 
purchase,  9;  locality  where  should 
be  purchased,  8. 

Stocks  for  the  orange,  103;  plum,  85. 

Stone  or  drupe  fruits,  the,  7.j. 

Stone  fruits,  cultivation  for,  76;  list  of 
cultivated,  75;  picking  and  iiacking 
the,  76;  soil  for,  7U. 


Storage  and  preservation  of  fruit, 

185. 

Storage,  fruit  may  become  moist  in, 
186:  fruit  may  become  moist  when 
removed  from,  187. 

Storage  houses,  co-operative,  188. 

Storage,  kind  of,  187. 

Storage  of  fruits,  16. 

Storing  the  cranberry,  179. 

Strawberiy,  the,  165. 

Strawberry  crown-borer,  170;  leaf- 
blight,  171;  leaf -roller,  170;  mildew, 
172;  root-borer,  170;  rust,  171;  saw- 
fly,  171;  sunburn,  171. 

Success  in  commercial  fruit  growing, 
what  it  depends  on,  2;  dependent  on 
selection  of  varieties,  7. 

Suggestions  for  laboratory  work,  19, 
38,  66,  100,  109,  125,  146,  159,  174,  184, 
203,  211. 

Sulfuring  fruits  for  di-yjng,  191. 

Summary  of  chapter  I,  18;  section  1, 
chap.  II,  36;  section  2,  chap.  II,  64; 
pear,  quince  and  stone  fruits,  98; 
citrous  fruits,  107;  nuts,  123;  the 
grape,  145;  bramble  fruits,  158;  gro- 
sellesand  strawberry,  172;  cranberry 
and  miscellaneous  bush  fruits,  183; 
chapter  V,  201 ;  chapter  VI,  210. 

Summer  grape,  126. 

Summer  pruning,  31;  the  grape,  138. 

Sunburn  of  strawberry,  171. 

Supplies,  methods  for  procuring,  210; 

needed  on  fruit  plantation,  209. 
Sweet  cherry,  87. 
Sweet  orange,  101,  102. 

Taphrina  pruni,  85. 

Tent  caterpillar,  48. 

Teras  vacciniivorana,  179. 

Tetranychus  telarius,  121. 

Thinning  fruit,  34;   promotes  annual 

bearing,  40. 
Thrips  injuring  the  strawberry,  171. 
Tillage  for  orchai-ds,  28. 
Time  to  purchase  stock  for  planting,  9. 
Tip  worm  of  cranberry,  180. 
Tobacco  dust  for  woolly  louse,  57. 


Index. 


221 


Training  the  grape,  131,  133. 

Transportation  facilities,  5. 

Transportation,  two  or  more  lines  of 
important,  5. 

Treatment  for  authracnose  of  grape, 
14;^;  currant  borer,  102;  cm-rant  worm, 
163;  downy  mildew,  142;  gooseberry 
mildew,  165;  leaf  spot  of  currant,  163; 
powdery  mildew,  143;  strawberry 
leaf-roller,  170. 

Tree  cricket,  155. 

Tree-fruit  or  orchard  culture,  20. 

Tree  protectors,  25. 

Trees,  class  and  age  of,  to  buy,  20. 

Trees,  high  or  low  heading  of,  29. 

Trees,  nursery,  how  graded,  21. 

Trees,  orchard,  care  of  young,  25; 
planting  of,  24;  when  growth  is  com- 
pleted in,  26. 

Trees,  young,  preferable,  21. 

Trelhsing  the  bramble  fruits,  154. 

Trellises  for  the  grape,  138. 

Trial  ground  essential,  7. 

Triangle  method  of  laying  out  or- 
chards, 22. 

Trypeta  poinonella,  48. 

Tying  the  grape,  139. 

Tyloderma  fragarice,  170. 

Uncinula  spiralis,  141. 

Upright  methods  of  grape  training,  133. 


Vaccinium  ('blueberry'),  181;  viacro- 
carpon,  175. 

"Varieties,  card  catalogue  of,  11;  com- 
mercial and  domestic,  7;  designa- 
tion of,  10;  selection  of,  important, 
7;  self-sterility  of.  13. 

Vinegar,  cider,  198;  rapid  generation  of, 
199. 

"Vine  worm  of  cranberry,  179. 

Vitis,  species  of,  126. 

Walnut,  the.  117. 

When  and  how  should  fruit  be  picked? 

14. 
White  currant,  160. 
Wholesale  rates,  securing,  210. 
Wild  cranberry  marshes,  improving,  176. 
Wild-goose  plum,  78. 
Wind-break,  4,  9. 

Winds,  shelter  from  prevailing,  4. 
Wine,  199;  manufacture  of,  200. 
Winter  grape,  126. 
Winter  protection  of  bramble  fruits, 

154;  grape,  144;  strawberries,  169. 
Woolly  aphis  of  apple,  56. 
Woolly  louse  of  apple,  56. 
Workmen,  loyal  spirit  among,  209. 

Yellow-headed  cranb^rr^'orm,  179. 
Yellow-necked  ap^le-tree  caterpiUar, 

51.  .-y>- 

YeUows  «f 5)6aeh,  95. 


§M 


.::i:i;^:!!'n'!'i:;; 

mm 


iiiiisiliiiiiillSiii 


